A Theory of Translation

Chapter Seven theorizes how Joseph Smith composed the Book of Mormon. Through a process of "revelatory translation," Smith spent several years crafting story outlines for the Book of Mormon, while simultaneously seeking spiritual confirmation of the historical authenticity of the narratives. Whether using a notebook of story outlines or simply his memory, Smith reviewed each of the story outlines prior to dictation, and then dictated the stories without the use of notes or manuscripts. The chapter contextualizes Smith's process within the western esoteric tradition of using seer stones and a biblical-style Urim and Thummim, with attention to the esotericism of John Dee and his scryer Edward Kelly (aka "Kelley"), who used a seer stone ("shew-stone") to translate angelic texts. The chapter further suggests the influence of biblical commentator Adam Clarke and his discussion of Paul's New Testament reference to the "tongue of angels." The chapter then reviews historical accounts by eyewitnesses to Smith's process of dictation and challenges apologetic interpretations. The chapter concludes with the theory that Smith composed the Book of Mormon by formulating the narratives in the work, after which he sought spiritual confirmation of their accuracy in a collaborative, spiritual co-authorship with the divine.

Introduction

The introduction situates Joseph Smith's oral composition of the Book of Mormon within the religious and rhetorical culture of early nineteenth-century America. In an extended oral performance, Smith gazed into a seer stone and dictated the Book of Mormon to his scribes. The study focuses on orality, oral performance, and the oral composition techniques that Smith used to dictate the work. The introduction also includes a brief summary of the Book of Mormon narratives, along with a discussion on the academic framework for understanding seer stones in the context of Western esotericism and folk magic.

Seer Stones and Western Esotericism

Chapter One contextualizes Joseph Smith's use of a "seer stone" to compose the Book of Mormon within contemporary folk magic practices, the philosophies of Western esotericism, and Christian occultism. The seer stone (sometimes described as a "Urim and Thummim") represented one of several folk magic practices that the Smith family pursued, most notably in relation to "money digging" or treasure hunting with mystical objects as guides. Such mystical pursuits entangled esoteric thought with religious efforts to discover God's mysteries, and Smith's practices reflected this magical worldview.

Epilogue

The epilogue concludes the study with a brief review of the role of oral composition and oral performance in the creation of the Book of Mormon, along with providing suggestions for future studies. The chapter challenges hagiographic tropes that portray Joseph Smith as an uneducated, illiterate farm boy, offering instead an alternative view of an ambitious young man seeking to improve his humble status and to fulfil his belief that he was destined to become a prophet of God. The epilogue ends with a review of Smith's legacy and how the Book of Mormon remains the foundational text of his movement.

Revival Sermons in the Burned-Over District

Chapter Three emphasizes Joseph Smith's exposure to Methodist sermon culture, within the context of exploring the preaching styles and oral performances of evangelical preachers in the Burned-Over District of Western New York. A close analysis of Baptist, Methodist, and Presbyterian preaching techniques illustrates the ubiquitous method of laying down heads and the practice of semi-extemporaneous sermon delivery. The chapter also addresses the extemporaneous preacher's method of preparation through the study of scriptures and other religious writings, as a way of "treasuring up the word of God" and building a mental storehouse of ideas for impromptu delivery. The chapter also explores the specific influence of Methodist sermon culture on Smith, who joined a local Methodist class and trained as a Methodist exhorter. Within this tradition, the influence of George Whitefield, John Wesley, and Adam Clarke are reviewed.

Constructing Book of Mormon Historical Narratives

Chapter Six explores Smith's use of story outlines as the narrative anchors for his oral composition of the Book of Mormon. By reviewing the sketch outlines, or "skeletons," of stories in advance of his dictation sessions, Smith could use such outlines as a mental guide, which he expanded extemporaneously into fully developed narratives in the moment of delivery. The original Book of Mormon summary headings for internal books, chapters, and sections provide explicit examples of this method of oral composition. Smith dictated the outlines of stories before dictating the stories themselves, revealing his advance knowledge of the narrative shape and structure of his stories, which he expanded extemporaneously during dictation to his scribes. This chapter also challenges the apologetic claim that such outlines represent ancient colophons, along with exploring Smith's use of mnemonic cues and embedded outlines. Finally, based on internal and external evidence, the chapter argues that Smith was fully aware of the overall story structure of the Book of Mormon before he started dictating the work.

Sermon Culture in the Book of Mormon

Chapter Five demonstrates how the Book of Mormon prophets delivered their sermons using the same patterns and techniques as nineteenth-century evangelical preachers. Two of the prophets, Nephi and Jacob, explicitly refer to the modern technique of "laying down heads" when Jacob relates that his brother, Nephi, admonished him to record the "heads" of sermons and prophecies on the gold plates and to "touch upon them" as much as possible (Jacob 1:4). Jacob further delivers his sermons using the "doctrine and use" sermon pattern that specifically arose from the sermo modernus of medieval scholasticism. The chapter further addresses the topics, techniques, and language styles in Book of Mormon sermons, including nineteenth-century gospel controversies, common subject matter for new preachers, the use of biblical language, and the presence of nineteenth-century revival language. A detailed analysis of the Book of Mormon reveals that over forty percent of the entire text, or approximately 108,099 words, consists of sermons, orations, scriptural commentaries, and exhortations. Such semi-extemporaneous oral productions would require little or no advanced preparation.

Laying Down Heads in Written and Oral Composition

Chapter Two explores Joseph Smith's personal style of composition in relation to contemporary print conventions, as well as early American education and popular preaching methods and techniques. The chapter focuses on the method of "laying down heads," or the use of preliminary outlines to compose and deliver sermons. The chapter begins with a brief look at John Walker's popular system of composition in early American education, followed by an exploration of the techniques in relation to Congregationalist preaching styles practiced in the Connecticut River Valley, where Smith spent much of his childhood. Smith's older brother, Hyrum Smith, attended Moor's Indian Charity School, an institution created by Congregationalist preacher Eleazar Wheelock in conjunction with the formation of Dartmouth College. The preaching style taught at the school reflected the semi-extemporaneous style of the famous preacher, George Whitefield, and provides evidence of a Smith family member receiving formal instruction in preaching styles, delivery, and rhetorical performance.

The King Follett Sermon

Chapter Four provides a detailed analysis of Joseph Smith's famous funeral sermon, the King Follett discourse. The auditors' notes for this sermon reveal Smith's semi-extemporaneous preaching technique, which combines advanced preparation in the general outline of the sermon with the extemporaneous delivery of words in the moment of performance. The sermon also reveals Smith's familiarity with the common "doctrine and use" sermon pattern, as well as his use of resumptive repetition, concealed heads, and mnemonic cues. Turning to the sermon notes of Baptist preacher Abraham Marshall, the chapter continues with a discussion of mnemonic cues by illustrating the preaching technique of creating condensed, succinct sermon outlines, known as short notes, briefs, or sketches, which preachers extemporaneously amplified into fully developed sermons in the moment of performance. Finally, the chapter explores how Methodist preachers adapted these preaching techniques to structure their written compositions, with an emphasis on spiritual autobiographies. These oral and written techniques provide a historical context for understanding how Joseph Smith applied the same methodology in the construction and oral composition of the Book of Mormon.