7. Countering terrorism

What can be done about terrorism? The multiplicity of possible responses range from mild regulation to full-blooded military repression, but what are the possible benefits and what are the likely costs? ‘Countering terrorism’ considers the differences between antiterrorist and counterterrorist measures, looking at the pros and cons in impulsive, appropriate, and long-term responses to terrorist acts, especially in light of recent terrorist attacks in European cities; and discusses democracy against terrorism and the balance between freedom and security. It is unlikely that terrorism will ever end, but the belief is that it is no more likely to bring about the destruction of Western civilization than it was a century ago.

1. The trouble with terrorism

The point of terrorism is to upset and make people feel vulnerable. ‘The trouble with terrorism’ attempts to define terrorism by examining the relationship between terror and war. Should all acts of terrorism be regarded as illegal? What factors decide whether an act of violence by non-state actors is justifiable despite being illegal? There are three elements in the terror process: seizing attention (shock, horror, fear, or revulsion), getting the terrorist message across, and fight or flight (the response to terrorism). The different strategies of terror, the shapes and forms of different terrorist organizations and their arms, as well as the role of women in terrorism are also considered.

3. The reign of terror

What are the origins of terrorism? ‘The reign of terror’ explains that the notion of terrorism, or terror, came from the French Revolution. The terror transformed the Revolution from a liberating to a destructive force. Those who instigated the terror had to find justification for their violent killing. Their motivation provides a key to the distinctive nature of modern terrorism. The revolutionaries may have seemed to act as crusaders, but the Reign of Terror was informed by the Enlightenment assumption that human agency can change the social order. The French Revolution’s use of violence created a model for the application of terrorizing force by state actors that lasted two centuries.

6. Religious terror

In the early 21st century, the world faced a revival of religious fundamentalism. The liberal assumption that the rise of modern society and the demise of religion came hand in hand was thrown into doubt. In the 1980s, terrorism was restricted to a few radical revolutionaries and familiar nationalists. The next decade saw a shift. It was Islam in particular that captured the attention of the West. ‘Religious terror’ considers the relationship between religion and violence, messianism, suicide and self-sacrifice, and fundamentalism, including the rise of the Islamic State movement. Are the motives for such terrorist acts purely religious or are they political as well?

5. Nationalism and terror

The framework for much of modern terrorist action is ethnic or nationalist, with each nationalism being culturally unique. The emblematic terrorist act—the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in June 1914—was a nationalist act. Nationalist movements have shown greater resilience than smaller left-wing revolutionary groups. Nationalism is a very strong force, so even a nation whose struggle seems likely to fail, such as the Chechens, may never give up. ‘Nationalism and terror’ looks at how nationalists have used terror to fight their cause, illustrating this with the case studies of the Irish republican IRA, the Basque separatists ETA, and Zionists in Palestine. Can terror liberate nations?

4. Revolutionary terrorism

The word ‘revolutionary’ has been applied over the last century in three social-political contexts: within existing nation-states; in external colonial situations; and in ‘internal colonial’ situations where ethnic groups are oppressed by a majority group within a single area. ‘Revolutionary terrorism’ explores contrasting motives for revolution: social transformation, assertion of ethnic identity, and progressive ideology. Terrorism can be divided into two ages: the late 19th century to early 20th century, where the aim was to seize political power from the established regime to bring about profound political and social change; and the early 20th century onwards, on the sidelines of political action, a terrorism of resistance.

2. Crusaders and conspirators

Who becomes a terrorist? It depends on the circumstances. Terrorist organizations differ markedly in how they recruit their members. The revolutionary kind requires fanatics, ideologues, and dreamers; while the nationalist kind may be so embedded in their communities that enlistment resembles a rite of passage. ‘Crusaders and conspirators’ considers whether the idea that one person’s terrorist is another’s freedom fighter is true. Can it help us understand the nature of terrorism? Can terrorism ever succeed? Since the 1970s, terrorism has taken on an international dimension and, more recently, there is the threat of weapons of mass destruction falling into the hands of terrorists; as well as the potential of cyberterror.