Abstract. Rivers are not isolated systems but interact continuously with groundwater
from their confined headwaters to their wide lowland floodplains. In the last
few decades, research on the hyporheic zone (HZ) has increased appreciation
of the hydrological importance and ecological significance of connected river
and groundwater systems. While recent studies have investigated hydrological,
biogeochemical and ecohydrological processes in the HZ at bedform
and reach scales, a comprehensive understanding of process-based interactions
between factors operating at different spatial and temporal scales driving
hyporheic exchange flows (HEFs) at reach scale and larger is still missing.
Therefore, this review summarizes the factors and processes at catchment,
valley, and reach scales that interact to control spatial and temporal
variations in hyporheic exchange flows. By using a multi-scale perspective,
this review connects field observations and modelling studies to identify the
process driving patterns and dynamics of HEF. Finally, the influence of
process interactions over multiple spatial scales is illustrated in a case
study, supported by new GIS analyses, which highlights the importance of
valley-scale factors to the expression of HEF at the reach scale. This
conceptual framework will aid the development of approaches to interpret
hyporheic exchange across scales, infer scaling relationships, and inform
catchment management decisions.