Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) such as diclofenac (DFN) and indomethacin (INDO) are extensively used worldwide. Their main side effects are injury of the gastrointestinal tract, including erosions, ulcers, and bleeding. Since gastric epithelial cells (GEPCs) are crucial for mucosal defense and are the major target of injury, we examined the extent to which DFN- and INDO-induced GEPC injury can be reversed by nerve growth factor (NGF), 16,16 dimethyl prostaglandin E2 (dmPGE2), and 5-aminoimidazole-4-carboxamide ribonucleotide (AICAR), the pharmacological activator of the metabolic sensor AMP kinase (AMPK). Cultured normal rat gastric mucosal epithelial (RGM1) cells were treated with PBS (control), NGF, dmPGE2, AICAR, and/or NSAID (DFN or INDO) for 1–4 h. We examined cell injury by confocal microscopy, cell death/survival using calcein AM, mitochondrial membrane potential using MitoTracker, and phosphorylation of AMPK by Western blotting. DFN and INDO treatment of RGM1 cells for 2 h decreased mitochondrial membrane potential and cell viability. NGF posttreatment (initiated 1 or 2 h after DFN or INDO) reversed the dissipation of mitochondrial membrane potential and cell injury caused by DFN and INDO and increased cell viability versus cells treated for 4 h with NSAID alone. Pretreatment with dmPGE2 and AICAR significantly protected these cells from DFN- and INDO-induced injury, whereas dmPGE2 and AICAR posttreatment (initiated 1 h after NSAID treatment) reversed cell injury and significantly increased cell viability and rescued the cells from NSAID-induced mitochondrial membrane potential reduction. DFN and INDO induce extensive mitochondrial injury and GEPC death, which can be significantly reversed by NGF, dmPGE2, and AICAR. NEW & NOTEWORTHY This study demonstrated that mitochondria are key targets of diclofenac- and indomethacin-induced injury of gastric epithelial cells and that diclofenac and indomethacin injury can be prevented and, importantly, also reversed by treatment with nerve growth factor, 16,16 dimethyl prostaglandin E2, and 5-aminoimidazole-4-carboxamide ribonucleotide.
A digitized-fluorescence-imaging study of mitochondrial Ca2+ increase by doxorubicin in cardiac myocytes