Sex Differences in Externalizing and Internalizing Symptoms in ADHD, Autism, and General Population Samples

Recent studies of mentally retarded children have found substantially higher rates of color blindness than are usually reported for the general population. In 2 of these studies, sex differences in color blindness, invariably found in intellectually normal children, do not appear. Reanalysis of data from one of the studies of retarded children suggests the possibility that the high rates arise from the difficulty in comprehending the test and following the directions rather than from faulty color vision. However, even if the number of color blind retarded children is actually lower than these studies show, the need for research on this topic seems apparent. Using color dependent instructional materials with color blind, mentally retarded children may be detrimental.

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The Relationship of Violent Fathers, Posttraumatically Stressed Mothers and Symptomatic Children in a Preschool-Age Inner-City Pediatrics Clinic Sample

Journal of Interpersonal Violence ◽

10.1177/0886260511403747 ◽

2011 ◽

Vol 26 (18) ◽

pp. 3699-3719 ◽

Cited By ~ 12

Author(s):

Daniel S. Schechter ◽

Erica Willheim ◽

Jaime McCaw ◽

J. Blake Turner ◽

Michael M. Myers ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Interpersonal Violence ◽

Psychological Functioning ◽

Internalizing Symptoms ◽

Multiple Regression Model ◽

Preschool Age ◽

Maternal Report ◽

Mediated Effects ◽

Aged Child ◽

Externalizing And Internalizing Symptoms ◽

Child Externalizing

This study aims to understand if greater severity of maternal posttraumatic stress symptoms (PTSS), related to maternal report of interpersonal violence, mediates the effects of such violence on (a) child PTSS as well as on (b) child externalizing and internalizing symptoms. Study participants were mothers ( N = 77) and children 18 to 48 months recruited from community pediatric clinics. Data were analyzed continuously via bivariate correlations and then multiple linear regression. Post hoc Sobel tests were performed to confirm mediation. Paternal violence accounted for 15% of the variance of child PTSS on the PCIP-OR (β = .39, p ≤ .001). While the child’s father being violent significantly predicts child PTSS related to domestic violence, as mentioned, when maternal PTSS is included in the multiple regression model, father’s being violent becomes less significant, while maternal PTSS remains strongly predictive. Sobel tests confirmed that maternal PTSS severity mediated effects of paternal violence on clinician-assessed child PTSS as well as on maternal report of child externalizing and internalizing symptoms. When presented with a preschool-aged child who is brought to consultation for behavioral difficulties, dysregulated aggression, and/or unexplained fears, clinicians should evaluate maternal psychological functioning as well as assess and treat the effects of interpersonal violence, which otherwise may be avoided during the consultation.

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The systemizing quotient: an investigation of adults with Asperger syndrome or high–functioning autism, and normal sex differences

Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences ◽

10.1098/rstb.2002.1206 ◽

2003 ◽

Vol 358 (1430) ◽

pp. 361-374 ◽

Cited By ~ 449

Author(s):

Simon Baron-Cohen ◽

Jennifer Richler ◽

Dheraj Bisarya ◽

Nhishanth Gurunathan ◽

Sally Wheelwright

Keyword(s):

Sex Differences ◽

General Population ◽

Asperger Syndrome ◽

High Functioning Autism ◽

Mental States ◽

Self Report ◽

Adult Males ◽

High Functioning ◽

Major Dimension ◽

Empathy Quotient

Systemizing is the drive to analyse systems or construct systems. A recent model of psychological sex differences suggests that this is a major dimension in which the sexes differ, with males being more drawn to systemize than females. Currently, there are no self–report measures to assess this important dimension. A second major dimension of sex differences is empathizing (the drive to identify mental states and respond to these with an appropriate emotion). Previous studies find females score higher on empathy measures. We report a new self–report questionnaire, the Systemizing Quotient (SQ), for use with adults of normal intelligence. It contains 40 systemizing items and 20 control items. On each systemizing item, a person can score 2, 1 or 0, so the SQ has a maximum score of 80 and a minimum of zero. In Study 1, we measured the SQ of n = 278 adults (114 males, 164 females) from a general population, to test for predicted sex differences (male superiority) in systemizing. All subjects were also given the Empathy Quotient (EQ) to test if previous reports of female superiority would be replicated. In Study 2 we employed the SQ and the EQ with n = 47 adults (33 males, 14 females) with Asperger syndrome (AS) or high–functioning autism (HFA), who are predicted to be either normal or superior at systemizing, but impaired at empathizing. Their scores were compared with n = 47 matched adults from the general population in Study 1. In Study 1, as predicted, normal adult males scored significantly higher than females on the SQ and significantly lower on the EQ. In Study 2, again as predicted, adults with AS/HFA scored significantly higher on the SQ than matched controls, and significantly lower on the EQ than matched controls. The SQ reveals both a sex difference in systemizing in the general population and an unusually strong drive to systemize in AS/HFA. These results are discussed in relation to two linked theories: the ‘empathizing–systemizing’ (E–S) theory of sex differences and the extreme male brain (EMB) theory of autism.

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Distress tolerance and early adolescent externalizing and internalizing symptoms: The moderating role of gender and ethnicity

Behaviour Research and Therapy ◽

10.1016/j.brat.2008.12.001 ◽

2009 ◽

Vol 47 (3) ◽

pp. 198-205 ◽

Cited By ~ 97

Author(s):

Stacey B. Daughters ◽

Elizabeth K. Reynolds ◽

Laura MacPherson ◽

Christopher W. Kahler ◽

Carla K. Danielson ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Internalizing Symptoms ◽

Distress Tolerance ◽

Early Adolescent ◽

Externalizing And Internalizing Symptoms ◽

Moderating Role

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Sex Differences in Factors Associated With Progression of Aortic Valve Calcification in the General Population

Circulation Cardiovascular Imaging ◽

10.1161/circimaging.121.013165 ◽

2022 ◽

Author(s):

Axel Diederichsen ◽

Jes Sanddal Lindholt ◽

Jacob Eifer Møller ◽

Oke Gerke ◽

Lars Melholt Rasmussen ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Computed Tomography ◽

Sex Differences ◽

Aortic Valve ◽

General Population ◽

Incidence Rate ◽

Interquartile Range ◽

Aortic Valve Calcification ◽

Valve Calcification ◽

Factors Associated

Background: Guidelines recommend measurement of the aortic valve calcification (AVC) score to help differentiate between severe and nonsevere aortic stenosis, but a paucity exists in data about AVC in the general population. The aim of this study was to describe the natural history of AVC progression in the general population and to identify potential sex differences in factors associated with this progression rate. Methods: Noncontrast cardiac computed tomography was performed in 1298 randomly selected women and men aged 65 to 74 years who participated in the DANCAVAS trial (Danish Cardiovascular Screening). Participants were invited to attend a reexamination after 4 years. The AVC score was measured at the computed tomography, and AVC progression (ΔAVC) was defined as the difference between AVC scores at baseline and follow-up. Multivariable regression analyses were performed to identify factors associated with ΔAVC. Results: Among the 1298 invited citizens, 823 accepted to participate in the follow-up examination. The mean age at follow-up was 73 years. Men had significantly higher AVC scores at baseline (median AVC score 13 Agatston Units [AU; interquartile range, 0–94 AU] versus 1 AU [interquartile range, 0–22 AU], P <0.001) and a higher ΔAVC (median 26 AU [interquartile range, 0–101 AU] versus 4 AU [interquartile range, 0–37 AU], P <0.001) than women. In the fully adjusted model, the most important factor associated with ΔAVC was the baseline AVC score. However, hypertension was associated with ΔAVC in women (incidence rate ratios, 1.58 [95% CI, 1.06–2.34], P =0.024) but not in men, whereas dyslipidemia was associated with ΔAVC in men (incidence rate ratio: 1.66 [95% CI, 1.18–2.34], P =0.004) but not in women. Conclusions: The magnitude of the AVC score was the most important marker of AVC progression. However, sex differences were significant; hence, dyslipidemia was associated with AVC progression only among men; hypertension with AVC progression only among women. REGISTRATION: URL: https://www.isrctn.com ; Unique identifier: ISRCTN12157806.

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