scholarly journals Electrical Brain Stimulation During a Retrieval-Based Learning Task Can Impair Long-Term Memory

2020 ◽  
Author(s):  
Wesley Pyke ◽  
Athanasios Vostanis ◽  
Amir-Homayoun Javadi
Keyword(s):  
Brain Stimulation ◽  
Cued Recall ◽  
Learning Ability ◽  
Long Term Memory ◽  
Anodal Tdcs ◽  
Term Memory ◽  
Term Retention ◽  
Learning Speed ◽  
Long Term Retention

AbstractAnodal transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) to the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) has been shown to improve performance on a multitude of cognitive tasks. These are, however, often simple tasks, testing only one cognitive domain at a time. Therefore, the efficacy of brain stimulation for complex tasks has yet to be understood. Using a task designed to increase learning efficiency, this study investigates whether anodal tDCS over the left DLPFC can modulate both learning ability and subsequent long-term memory retention. Using a within-subject design, participants (N = 25) took part in 6 training sessions over consecutive days in which active or sham stimulation was administered randomly (3 of each). A computer-based task was used, containing flags from countries unknown to the participants. Each training session consisted of the repetition of 8 pairs of flag/country names. Subsequently, in three testing sessions, free, cued, and timed cued recall, participants were assessed on all 48 flags they had learnt. No difference in learning speed between active and sham tDCS was found. Furthermore, in the timed cued recall phase, flags learnt in the sham tDCS sessions were recalled significantly better than flags learnt in the active tDCS sessions. This effect was stronger in the second testing session. It was also found that for the flags answered incorrectly; thus, meaning they were presented more frequently, subsequent long-term retention was improved. These results suggest that for a complex task, anodal tDCS is ineffective at improving learning speed and potentially detrimental to long-term retention when employed during encoding. This serves to highlight the complex nature of brain stimulation, providing a greater understanding of its limitations and drawbacks.

scholarly journals Long-term memory for a learned behaviour in a wild bird

2020 ◽  
Vol 16 (2) ◽  
pp. 20190912
Author(s):  
Rachael C. Shaw ◽  
Annette Harvey
Keyword(s):  
Food Reward ◽  
Foraging Behaviour ◽  
Management Strategies ◽  
Long Term Memory ◽  
Free Living ◽  
Term Memory ◽  
The North ◽  
Term Retention ◽  
Long Term Retention

Long-term memory is a crucial adaptation for long-lived species. However, there have been few tests of the long-term retention of learned behaviours in free living, wild animals. Here, we demonstrate that the North Island robin ( Petroica longipes ; hereafter toutouwai) can recall a learned foraging behaviour for close to 2 years, with no intervening reinforcement. Birds that had been trained to peck open lids to retrieve a concealed food reward spontaneously solved a lid opening task between 10 and 22 months since they had last encountered the lid opening apparatus. By contrast, naive individuals could not solve the task. This long-term retention of a learned skill with no reinforcement, spanning over a quarter of the median age for wild toutouwai in our population, suggests that this threatened species may be an ideal candidate for conservation management strategies aimed at teaching individuals about novel threats and resources.

scholarly journals Long-Term Retention Explained by a Model of Short-Term Learning in the Adaptive Control of Reaching

2008 ◽  
Vol 100 (5) ◽  
pp. 2948-2955 ◽  
Author(s):  
Wilsaan M. Joiner ◽  
Maurice A. Smith
Keyword(s):  
Motor Adaptation ◽  
Memory Formation ◽  
Training Period ◽  
Long Term Memory ◽  
Initial Training ◽  
Short Term ◽  
Term Memory ◽  
Term Retention ◽  
Long Term Retention

Extensive theoretical, psychophysical, and neurobiological work has focused on the mechanisms by which short-term learning develops into long-term memory. Better understanding of these mechanisms may lead to the ability to improve the efficiency of training procedures. A key phenomenon in the formation of long-term memory is the effect of over learning on retention—discovered by Ebbinghaus in 1885: when the initial training period in a task is prolonged even beyond what is necessary for good immediate recall, long-term retention improves. Although this over learning effect has received considerable attention as a phenomenon in psychology research, the mechanisms governing this process are not well understood, and the ability to predict the benefit conveyed by varying degrees of over learning does not yet exist. Here we studied the relationship between the duration of an initial training period and the amount of retention 24 h later for the adaptation of human reaching arm movements to a novel force environment. We show that in this motor adaptation task, the amount of long-term retention is predicted not by the overall performance level achieved during the training period but rather by the level of a specific component process in a multi-rate model of short-term memory formation. These findings indicate that while multiple learning processes determine the ability to learn a motor adaptation, only one provides a gateway to long-term memory formation. Understanding the dynamics of this key learning process may allow for the rational design of training and rehabilitation paradigms that maximize the long-term benefit of each session.

scholarly journals Long-term memory for a learned behaviour in a wild bird

2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
Rachael Shaw ◽  
A Harvey
Keyword(s):  
Food Reward ◽  
Foraging Behaviour ◽  
Management Strategies ◽  
Long Term Memory ◽  
Free Living ◽  
Term Memory ◽  
The North ◽  
Term Retention ◽  
Long Term Retention

© 2020 The Authors. Long-term memory is a crucial adaptation for long-lived species. However, there have been few tests of the long-term retention of learned behaviours in free living, wild animals. Here, we demonstrate that the North Island robin (Petroica longipes; hereafter toutouwai) can recall a learned foraging behaviour for close to 2 years, with no intervening reinforcement. Birds that had been trained to peck open lids to retrieve a concealed food reward spontaneously solved a lid opening task between 10 and 22 months since they had last encountered the lid opening apparatus. By contrast, naive individuals could not solve the task. This long-term retention of a learned skill with no reinforcement, spanning over a quarter of the median age for wild toutouwai in our population, suggests that this threatened species may be an ideal candidate for conservation management strategies aimed at teaching individuals about novel threats and resources.

scholarly journals Long-term memory for a learned behaviour in a wild bird

2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
Rachael Shaw ◽  
A Harvey
Keyword(s):  
Food Reward ◽  
Foraging Behaviour ◽  
Management Strategies ◽  
Long Term Memory ◽  
Free Living ◽  
Term Memory ◽  
The North ◽  
Term Retention ◽  
Long Term Retention

© 2020 The Authors. Long-term memory is a crucial adaptation for long-lived species. However, there have been few tests of the long-term retention of learned behaviours in free living, wild animals. Here, we demonstrate that the North Island robin (Petroica longipes; hereafter toutouwai) can recall a learned foraging behaviour for close to 2 years, with no intervening reinforcement. Birds that had been trained to peck open lids to retrieve a concealed food reward spontaneously solved a lid opening task between 10 and 22 months since they had last encountered the lid opening apparatus. By contrast, naive individuals could not solve the task. This long-term retention of a learned skill with no reinforcement, spanning over a quarter of the median age for wild toutouwai in our population, suggests that this threatened species may be an ideal candidate for conservation management strategies aimed at teaching individuals about novel threats and resources.

scholarly journals Temporal–prefrontal cortical network for discrimination of valuable objects in long-term memory

2018 ◽  
Vol 115 (9) ◽  
pp. E2135-E2144 ◽  
Author(s):  
Ali Ghazizadeh ◽  
Whitney Griggs ◽  
David A. Leopold ◽  
Okihide Hikosaka
Keyword(s):  
Functional Connectivity ◽  
Resting State ◽  
High Capacity ◽  
Long Term Memory ◽  
Gaze Behavior ◽  
Resting State Functional Connectivity ◽  
Term Memory ◽  
Term Retention ◽  
Long Term Retention

Remembering and discriminating objects based on their previously learned values are essential for goal-directed behaviors. While the cerebral cortex is known to contribute to object recognition, surprisingly little is known about its role in retaining long-term object–value associations. To address this question, we trained macaques to arbitrarily associate small or large rewards with many random fractal objects (>100) and then used fMRI to study the long-term retention of value-based response selectivity across the brain. We found a pronounced long-term value memory in core subregions of temporal and prefrontal cortex where, several months after training, fractals previously associated with high reward (“good” stimuli) elicited elevated fMRI responses compared with those associated with low reward (“bad” stimuli). Similar long-term value-based modulation was also observed in subregions of the striatum, amygdala, and claustrum, but not in the hippocampus. The value-modulated temporal–prefrontal subregions showed strong resting-state functional connectivity to each other. Moreover, for areas outside this core, the magnitude of long-term value responses was predicted by the strength of resting-state functional connectivity to the core subregions. In separate testing, free-viewing gaze behavior indicated that the monkeys retained stable long-term memory of object value. These results suggest an implicit and high-capacity memory mechanism in the temporal–prefrontal circuitry and its associated subcortical regions for long-term retention of object-value memories that can guide value-oriented behavior.

Effect of Forebrain Ablation on Long-Term Retention of an Appetitive Discrimination by Goldfish

1975 ◽  
Vol 36 (3) ◽  
pp. 783-786 ◽  
Author(s):  
Nancy Bohac Flood
Keyword(s):  
Retention Interval ◽  
Discrimination Task ◽  
Memory Function ◽  
Correct Choice ◽  
Long Term Memory ◽  
Term Memory ◽  
Term Retention ◽  
Long Term Retention

4 normal and 4 forebrain-ablated fish were food-reinforced for correct choice in a circle-square discrimination task; both groups readily learned the task. When the fish were tested after 8 days of a practice-free retention interval, both groups performed equally well and at the same level as their earlier asymptote. The results of this study indicate that long-term memory function of teleosts is not affected by forebrain ablation.

Effects of Reinforcement Condition upon Long-Term Retention of Retarded

1971 ◽  
Vol 29 (3) ◽  
pp. 957-958
Author(s):  
Larry W. Talkington
Keyword(s):  
Motor Task ◽  
Long Term Memory ◽  
Term Memory ◽  
Reinforcement Condition ◽  
Term Retention ◽  
Score Analysis ◽  
Contingency Condition ◽  
Long Term Retention ◽  
Token Contingency

4 groups of educable, teenage retardates learned a motor task, each under a different token contingency condition. 14 days later, Ss were tested on two retention measures to determine relationship between reinforcement condition and long-term memory. The recall measure indicated that a response-cost condition resulted in higher recall than the reward, combination cost/reward or non-token controls, however, a savings score analysis did not demonstrate treatment differences.

The Role of the Interpolated Task in Short-Term Retention

1966 ◽  
Vol 18 (3) ◽  
pp. 266-269 ◽  
Author(s):  
R. Conrad ◽  
A. J. Hull
Keyword(s):  
Proactive Interference ◽  
Long Term Memory ◽  
Interference Theory ◽  
Short Term ◽  
Term Memory ◽  
Term Retention ◽  
Short And Long Term ◽  
Single Set

It has been proposed that a single set of operations based on classical interference theory is adequate to describe the phenomena of both short- and long-term memory. An article by Keppel and Underwood (1962) argues that short-term forgetting is due to proactive interference and, by implication, not a result of trace decay. An experiment which varied retention interval and the nature of the interpolated task, gave results which indicate that when the amount forgotten and the nature of errors are considered, a decay model is supported, the proactive interference suggestion being untenable.

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