Academic Freedom: Its Meaning and Underlying Premises as Seen Through the American Experience

1976 ◽  
Vol 11 (1) ◽  
pp. 52-76
Author(s):  
Stephen R. Goldstein
Keyword(s):  
United States ◽  
Nineteenth Century ◽  
Academic Freedom ◽  
Learning Process ◽  
Teaching And Learning ◽  
The United States ◽  
Intellectual Freedom ◽  
American Experience ◽  
Modern Development ◽  
Research Scholar

Although some aspects of intellectual freedom embodied in the concept of academic freedom find their sources in earlier times, the modern development of the doctrine is largely derived from the nineteenth century German concepts of lehrfreiheit and lernfreiheit—freedom of teaching and learning respectively. The basic concept was that a university faculty member was free to teach what and how he thought best and students were free to learn what and how they thought best, with university authorities or external agencies such as governments imposing only the most minimal restraints on either teacher or student. The professor and student were viewed as engaged in a typically nineteenth century concept of laissez-faire, with the optimum situation being that of the least possible restriction on the teaching and learning process.Part of this concept—primarily that of freedom of teaching—crossed the Atlantic and found expression in the United States. This article will explore the meaning and premises of the doctrine of academic freedom of the teacher and research scholar, lehrfreiheit, as it so developed in the United States.

Calhoun's Idea of “Concurrent Majority” and the Constitutional Theory of Hegel

1939 ◽  
Vol 33 (4) ◽  
pp. 585-590
Author(s):  
Gunnar Heckscher
Keyword(s):  
United States ◽  
Nineteenth Century ◽  
The United States ◽  
The Other ◽  
Constitutional Theory ◽  
Federal System ◽  
German Empire ◽  
Valuable Source ◽  
American Experience ◽  
The Government

It is a well-known fact that the writings of John C. Calhoun were read and admired by German political theorists in the latter part of the nineteenth century. When the problems of federalism became predominant in the German Empire, it was found natural to turn to American experience and to study the works of the leaders of contending factions in the United States before the Civil War.There may, however, be another reason why Calhoun, in particular, proved such a valuable source for the German authors. His theory of the concurrent majority, in many parts, presents a striking resemblance to the arguments advanced on the continent of Europe in defense of legislatures built on representation, not of individuals, but of groups, interests, or estates. It can be assumed that Calhoun, when speaking of the safeguards necessary against the despotism of the numerical majority, was thinking primarily of the federal system and states' rights. On the other hand, he can hardly have regarded this arrangement as the only possible solution to his problem. He defines the government of the concurrent majority as one “where the organism is perfect, excludes the possibility of oppression, by giving to each interest, or portion, or order,—where there are established classes,—the means of protecting itself, by its negative, against all measures calculated to advance the peculiar interests of others at its expense.” Especially in view of the expression “where there are established classes,” it seems safe to say that Calhoun probably knew of the existence of representation by estates of the realm in European countries, and regarded such systems with favor.

The Invention of Terrorism in Nineteenth Century Europe, Russia, and the United States

2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
Carola Dietze
Keyword(s):  
United States ◽  
Nineteenth Century ◽  
Learning Process ◽  
The United States ◽  
Napoleon Iii ◽  
Harpers Ferry ◽  
The Media ◽  
Systematic Reflection ◽  
John Brown

This chapter examines the emergence of terrorism. It argues that five men invented terrorist tactics in a transnational learning process between 1858 and 1866 in Europe, the United States, and Russia. After a systematic reflection on terrorism’s sociopolitical logic and its preconditions, the chapter analyzes Felice Orsini’s attempt to assassinate Napoleon III and the media reactions. This case is interpreted as the beginning of the invention of terrorism. News of Orsini’s deed traveled to America and had inspired John Brown, who changed his tactics from guerilla war to terrorism when he planned his raid on Harpers Ferry. Oskar Wilhelm Becker, John Wilkes Booth, and Dmitrii Vladimirovich Karakozov were the three most significant imitators of both Orsini’s and Brown’s deeds. They finalized the tactic by universalizing it politically and developing the claim of responsibility (Bekennerschreiben). With these developments the terrorist tactic as we know it today was fully developed.

Thinking About Scots Law

1996 ◽  
Vol 1 (1) ◽  
pp. 3-24 ◽  
Author(s):  
Alan Rodger
Keyword(s):  
United States ◽  
Nineteenth Century ◽  
British Empire ◽  
United States Of America ◽  
Case Law ◽  
The United States ◽  
Memorial Lecture ◽  
University Of Edinburgh ◽  
The University

This article is the revised text of the first W A Wilson Memorial Lecture, given in the Playfair Library, Old College, in the University of Edinburgh, on 17 May 1995. It considers various visions of Scots law as a whole, arguing that it is now a system based as much upon case law and precedent as upon principle, and that its departure from the Civilian tradition in the nineteenth century was part of a general European trend. An additional factor shaping the attitudes of Scots lawyers from the later nineteenth century on was a tendency to see themselves as part of a larger Englishspeaking family of lawyers within the British Empire and the United States of America.

‘A Routh O’ Auld Nick-Nackets’ – the antiquarian collection of John Rae

2015 ◽  
Vol 36-37 (1) ◽  
pp. 163-183
Author(s):  
Paul Taylor
Keyword(s):  
United States ◽  
Nineteenth Century ◽  
Social Context ◽  
Moral Education ◽  
The United States ◽  
Representative Case ◽  
National Museums ◽  
The Individual ◽  
The University

John Rae, a Scottish antiquarian collector and spirit merchant, played a highly prominent role in the local natural history societies and exhibitions of nineteenth-century Aberdeen. While he modestly described his collection of archaeological lithics and other artefacts, principally drawn from Aberdeenshire but including some items from as far afield as the United States, as a mere ‘routh o’ auld nick-nackets' (abundance of old knick-knacks), a contemporary singled it out as ‘the best known in private hands' (Daily Free Press 4/5/91). After Rae's death, Glasgow Museums, National Museums Scotland, the University of Aberdeen Museum and the Pitt Rivers Museum in Oxford, as well as numerous individual private collectors, purchased items from the collection. Making use of historical and archive materials to explore the individual biography of Rae and his collection, this article examines how Rae's collecting and other antiquarian activities represent and mirror wider developments in both the ‘amateur’ antiquarianism carried out by Rae and his fellow collectors for reasons of self-improvement and moral education, and the ‘professional’ antiquarianism of the museums which purchased his artefacts. Considered in its wider nineteenth-century context, this is a representative case study of the early development of archaeology in the wider intellectual, scientific and social context of the era.

A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE ON THE AUDITOR'S ROLE: THE EARLY EXPERlENCE OF THE AMERICAN RAILROADS

1983 ◽  
Vol 10 (1) ◽  
pp. 69-86 ◽  
Author(s):  
James L. Boockholdt
Keyword(s):  
United States ◽  
Nineteenth Century ◽  
Internal Control ◽  
Historical Perspective ◽  
The United States ◽  
Advisory Services ◽  
Audit Independence ◽  
Inherent Part

The paper explores the origins of the auditing profession in the United States. It is suggested that the development of the audit function in this country can be traced to reporting by internal and shareholder auditors in the American railroads during the middle of the nineteenth century. Evidence is presented that a recognition of the need for audit independence existed, and that the provision of advisory services and reports on internal control by American auditors have been an inherent part of the auditor's role from that time.

Practical Approaches to Higher Education

2018 ◽  
Author(s):  
Jane Kotzmann
Keyword(s):  
Higher Education ◽  
United States ◽  
Human Rights ◽  
Teaching And Learning ◽  
Real Life ◽  
Theoretical Models ◽  
The United States ◽  
Education Systems ◽  
Higher Education Systems ◽  
Human Rights Based Approach

This chapter explores the real-life operation of six higher education systems that align with the theoretical models identified in Chapter 2. Three states follow a largely market-based approach: Chile, England, and the United States. Three states follow a largely human rights-based approach: Finland, Iceland, and Sweden. The chapter describes each system in terms of how it aligns with the particular model before evaluating the system in relation to the signs and measures of successful higher education systems identified in Chapter 3. This chapter provides conclusions as to the relative likelihood of each approach facilitating the achievement of higher education teaching and learning purposes.

An Overview of the History of Religious Life in the United States

2018 ◽  
Author(s):  
Patricia Wittberg ◽  
Thomas P. Gaunt
Keyword(s):  
United States ◽  
Nineteenth Century ◽  
Religious Life ◽  
The United States ◽  
Religious Order ◽  
Religious Institutes ◽  
History Of ◽  
Socioeconomic Composition

This chapter briefly describes the history of religious institutes in the United States. It first covers the demographics—the overall numbers and the ethnic and socioeconomic composition—of the various institutes during the nineteenth century. It next discusses the types of ministries the sisters, brothers, and religious order priests engaged in, and the sources of vocations to their institutes. The second section covers changes in religious institutes after 1950, covering the factors which contributed to the changes as well as their impact on the institutes themselves and the larger Church. The chapter concludes with a brief overview of the subsequent chapters.

Assessment and Critical Pedagogy

2019 ◽  
pp. 306-324
Author(s):  
Frank Abrahams
Keyword(s):  
United States ◽  
Critical Theory ◽  
Critical Pedagogy ◽  
Teaching And Learning ◽  
Teacher Performance ◽  
Learning Experience ◽  
The United States ◽  
Summative Assessments ◽  
The World ◽  
Integrative Assessment

This chapter aligns the tenets of critical pedagogy with current practices of assessment in the United States. The author posits that critical pedagogy is an appropriate lens through which to view assessment, and argues against the hegemonic practices that support marginalization of students. Grounded in critical theory and based on Marxist ideals, the content supports the notion of teaching and learning as a partnership where the desire to empower and transform the learner, and open possibilities for the learner to view the world and themselves in that world, are primary goals. Political mandates to evaluate teacher performance and student learning are presented and discussed. In addition to the formative and summative assessments that teachers routinely do to students, the author suggests integrative assessment, where students with the teacher reflect together on the learning experience and its outcomes. The chapter includes specific examples from the author’s own teaching that operationalize the ideas presented.

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