Natural methylxanthines, caffeine, theophylline and theobromine, are widespread biologically active alkaloids in human nutrition, found mainly in beverages (coffee, tea, cocoa, energy drinks, etc.). Their detection is thus of extreme importance, and many studies are devoted to this topic. During the last decade, graphene oxide (GO) and reduced graphene oxide (RGO) gained popularity as constituents of sensors (chemical, electrochemical and biosensors) for methylxanthines. The main advantages of GO and RGO with respect to graphene are the easiness and cheapness of synthesis, the notable higher solubility in polar solvents (water, among others), and the higher reactivity towards these targets (mainly due to – interactions); one of the main disadvantages is the lower electrical conductivity, especially when using them in electrochemical sensors. Nonetheless, their use in sensors is becoming more and more common, with the obtainment of very good results in terms of selectivity and sensitivity (up to 5.4 × 10−10 mol L−1 and 1.8 × 10−9 mol L−1 for caffeine and theophylline, respectively). Moreover, the ability of GO to protect DNA and RNA from enzymatic digestion renders it one of the best candidates for biosensors based on these nucleic acids. This is an up-to-date review of the use of GO and RGO in sensors.
Microstructure and electrochemical properties of high performance graphene/manganese oxide hybrid electrodes
