Size Constancy in Children: A New Interpretation

Perception ◽  
1988 ◽  
Vol 17 (6) ◽  
pp. 803-813 ◽  
Author(s):  
Josephine Shallo ◽  
Irvin Rock
Keyword(s):  
Young Children ◽  
Age Differences ◽  
Visual Angle ◽  
Size Constancy ◽  
Stimulus Information ◽  
Proximal Stimulus ◽  
New Interpretation

Existing evidence indicates that there are differences between children and adults in size constancy when observation distances are large. Findings are reported which suggest that this phenomenon is based on a difference in the accessing of proximal stimulus information, which, in the case of size, refers to visual angle subtended. Age differences were found when a traditional size constancy task was used, but these differences disappeared when all the comparison objects subtended the same visual angle. Since this finding demonstrates that young children can make accurate size matches, it is suggested that the underconstancy previously reported is not necessarily the result of childrens' inability to use fully certain cues to distance. Rather, the findings suggest that children access proximal stimulus information more spontaneously than do adults.

Size-Constancy in the CAVE

2007 ◽  
Vol 16 (2) ◽  
pp. 172-187 ◽  
Author(s):  
Robert V Kenyon ◽  
Daniel Sandin ◽  
Randall C Smith ◽  
Richard Pawlicki ◽  
Thomas Defanti
Keyword(s):  
Virtual Environments ◽  
Test Object ◽  
Visual Angle ◽  
Physical World ◽  
Object Size ◽  
Size Constancy ◽  
Environmental Objects ◽  
The Subject ◽  
Correct Size

The use of virtual environments (VE) for many research and commercial purposes relies on its ability to generate environments that faithfully reproduce the physical world. However, due to its limitations the VE can have a number of flaws that adversely affect its use and believability. One of the more important aspects of this problem is whether the size of an object in the VE is perceived as it would be in the physical world. One of the fundamental phenomena for correct size is size-constancy, that is, an object is perceived to be the same size regardless of its distance from the observer. This is in spite of the fact that the retinal size of the object shrinks with increasing distance from the observer. We examined size-constancy in the CAVE and found that size-constancy is a strong and dominant perception in our subject population when the test object is accompanied by surrounding environmental objects. Furthermore, size-constancy changes to a visual angle performance (i.e., object size changed with distance from the subject) when these surrounding objects are removed from the scene. As previously described for the physical world, our results suggest that it is necessary to provide surrounding objects to aid in the determination of an object's depth and to elicit size-constancy in VE. These results are discussed regarding their implications for viewing objects in projection-based VE and the environments that play a role in the perception of object size in the CAVE.

Intelligence Factors in the Perception of Form through a Moving Slit

Perception ◽  
1973 ◽  
Vol 2 (3) ◽  
pp. 357-369 ◽  
Author(s):  
I Rock ◽  
E Sigman
Keyword(s):  
Line Segment ◽  
Narrow Slit ◽  
Stimulus Information ◽  
Short Line ◽  
Proximal Stimulus ◽  
Short Line Segment ◽  
Elegant Solution

When a narrow slit moves over a line figure (or the equivalent stimulus is simulated by a short line segment appropriately displacing within a moving slit), observers often perceive an extended figure although the stimulus information is ambiguous. In several experiments it is shown that the perception of a figure tends to occur, provided the stimulus information is compatible with the perceptual ‘solution’ of a figure revealed by a moving aperture: the visible segment of the figure must completely fill the aperture, the surround of the aperture must appear to be opaque and extend an adequate distance on both sides, the aperture must be perceived as an opening rather than as a figure, and, if the slope of the segment is visible, it must change appropriately from moment to moment. Thus the outcome can be thought of as an intelligent, elegant solution to the problem posed by the transforming proximal stimulus.

scholarly journals How Children Form and Update Beliefs from an Evidence Series

2018 ◽  
Vol 17 (4) ◽  
pp. 1-21 ◽  
Author(s):  
Anne Schlottmann
Keyword(s):  
Young Children ◽  
Age Differences ◽  
Process Parameters ◽  
Information Complexity ◽  
Short Term ◽  
Typically Develop ◽  
Recency Effects ◽  
Information Order ◽  
Over Time

Our attitudes/beliefs typically develop gradually, with information appearing over time. This study considered how 6- and 9-year-olds (N = 80) form beliefs from serial information, and how information order affects this, in parallel social and physical judgment tasks. Children updated their beliefs continuously, after each bit of information, or gave one judgment at the end of the series. Updating results showed strong, short-term recency effects; stable beliefs, reflecting all informers, developed as well. These stable beliefs were weaker for younger children; the recency was stronger. Both ages used a running average strategy when serially updating judgments, but a memory-based approach when responding only at the end. The latter produced no recency or age differences and led to stronger beliefs. It is concluded that children use the same serial judgment strategies as adults. Process parameters, e.g., recency weights, change with development/information complexity, but even young children form serial beliefs effectively.

Some Influences of Visual Angle and Retinal Speed on Measures of the Spiral Aftereffect

1970 ◽  
Vol 30 (1) ◽  
pp. 215-227 ◽  
Author(s):  
Mary Jane Williams ◽  
William E. Collins
Keyword(s):  
Visual Angle ◽  
Retinal Size ◽  
Viewing Distance ◽  
Size Constancy ◽  
Intensity Measures ◽  
Under Five ◽  
Distance Constant ◽  
Constant Distance ◽  
Physical Variables ◽  
Apparent Influence

Duration and intensity of the SAE were judged under five conditions: Angle Constant (A)—retinal speed and visual angle were held constant across several spiral-size, viewing-distance combinations; Size-Constant—a single spiral size was used at several distances, with retinal speed either varied (S1) or held constant (S2); Distance Constant—several spiral sizes were used at a constant distance with retinal speed either varied (D1) or held constant (D2). Duration and intensity measures were affected similarly, with perceptual rather than physical variables seeming to account for the results. Assuming that perfect size constancy occurred during the experiment, SAE durations were longer, in general, for larger values of perceived size per unit of retinal size. Retinal speed variation had no apparent influence, except possibly at low values.

The Reality of Experience: Gibson's Way

1998 ◽  
Vol 7 (1) ◽  
pp. 90-95 ◽  
Author(s):  
John M. Flach ◽  
John G. Holden
Keyword(s):  
Virtual Environments ◽  
First Principles ◽  
Perception And Action ◽  
Functional Approach ◽  
Neural Mechanisms ◽  
Ecological Framework ◽  
Stimulus Information ◽  
Information Theoretic ◽  
Proximal Stimulus ◽  
Information Theoretic Measures

This paper considers some first principles that might provide a basis for an objective science of experience (presence or immersion). Dimensions that are considered include classical Newtonian measures of the distal stimulus, changes in neural mechanisms reflecting the proximal stimulus, information theoretic measures of the statistical properties of events, and functional properties related to intentions and abilities. Gibson's ecological framework is suggested as a promising functional approach for defining the reality of experience in relation to the problem of designing virtual environments. This approach emphasizes the tight coordination between perception and action and fixes the measurement coordinate system relative to the capacity for action.

Effects of Age on Color Preference for Black and White by Infants and Young Children

1983 ◽  
Vol 56 (1) ◽  
pp. 323-330 ◽  
Author(s):  
Jo Whitten May ◽  
J. Gaylord May
Keyword(s):  
Young Children ◽  
Age Differences ◽  
Preference Test ◽  
Interval Data ◽  
Color Preference ◽  
Day Care Centers ◽  
Black And White ◽  
Males And Females ◽  
Clear Increase ◽  
Infants And Young Children

To determine whether race influenced preference for the colors black and white by infants and young children a color preference test was administered to 160 subjects who attended day-care centers and who ranged in age from 6 mo. to 4.5 yr. There were equal numbers of males and females and equal numbers of Afro- and Euro-American subjects. Ages of the subjects were controlled so there were 20 subjects in each 6-mo. age interval. Data were obtained from a 12-item test. The test utilized 6 pairs of toys which were identical except one was black and the other was white. The toy a subject selected was considered that subject's preference and the color of that toy was recorded. A two-way analysis of variance and a regression analysis indicated that, as a group, race affected color preference. Age differences did not produce the same effect for Euro-Americans as for Afro-Americans. As age increased, young Afro-American subjects showed a clear increase in their preference for the color white. A corresponding analysis for Euro-Americans did not show a significant change in color preference with an increase in age.

AGE DIFFERENCES IN THE DISCRIMINATION SHIFT LEARNING OF YOUNG CHILDREN

1970 ◽  
Vol 11 (1) ◽  
pp. 29-36
Author(s):  
John Garner
Keyword(s):  
Young Children ◽  
Age Differences

Encounters with Aggressive Peers in Early Childhood: Frequency, Age Differences, and Correlates of Risk for Behaviour Problems

1994 ◽  
Vol 17 (4) ◽  
pp. 675-696 ◽  
Author(s):  
Jamie J. Sinclair ◽  
Gregory S. Pettit ◽  
Amanda W. Harrist ◽  
Kenneth A. Dodge ◽  
John E. Bates
Keyword(s):  
Early Childhood ◽  
Young Children ◽  
Age Differences ◽  
Social Activity ◽  
Single Parent ◽  
Demographic Characteristics ◽  
Behaviour Problems ◽  
Activity Settings ◽  
Single Parent Families ◽  
Activity Setting

The primary goal of the present study was to describe the range, types, and quality (in terms of exposure to aggressive peers) of social activity settings in which young children typically have contact with peers. We also examined whether participation in these settings varied as a function of child sex and age, and family demographic characteristics. Subjects were 277 preschoolaged children. On the basis of detailed accounts of their mothers, activity setting measures were derived separately for ages 2-4 years (era 1) and ages 4-5 years (era 2). Each of seven activity settings (e.g. neighbourhood, day care, organised playgroups) was rated for frequency of participation and frequency of exposure to aggressive peers. Children had the greatest amount of peer contact and were exposed to aggressive peers most often in the neighbourhood setting. In contrast, children participated least frequently in structured playgroup settings, and these settings were least likely to contain aggressive peers. Children from lower SES and single-parent families were more likely to be involved in settings (especially neighbourhoods) containing aggressive peers. These findings suggest that one mechanism through which risk for behaviour problems among children in lower SES and single-parent families may operate is increased exposure to activity settings in which aggression occurs regularly.

Rhyme and alliteration in poems elicited from young children

1989 ◽  
Vol 16 (1) ◽  
pp. 181-202 ◽  
Author(s):  
Ann Dowker
Keyword(s):  
Young Children ◽  
Language Development ◽  
Phonological Awareness ◽  
Special Reference ◽  
Age Differences ◽  
Relative Frequency ◽  
Learning To Read ◽  
Language Play

ABSTRACTAttempts were made to elicit poems from 133 children between the ages of 2 and 6. Seventy-eight of the children produced 606 poems between them. Sixty per cent of the poems contained phonological devices; 42% contained rhyme and 26% contained alliteration. There was no obvious age trend as regards the use of rhyme but the frequency of alliteration declined with age. There were no significant age differences as regards the relative frequency with which different phonemes were manipulated in rhyme and alliteration. The possible functions of such sound-based language play in language development are discussed, with special reference both to children's sound play in crib speech, and to the development of phonological awareness and its importance in learning to read.

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