Deforestation in Australia: drivers, trends and policy responses

2016 ◽  
Vol 22 (2) ◽  
pp. 130 ◽  
Author(s):  
Megan C. Evans
Keyword(s):  
Industrial Development ◽  
Forest Cover ◽  
Policy Instruments ◽  
Native Forest ◽  
Private Land ◽  
Terrestrial Environment ◽  
Policy Responses ◽  
Deforestation Rates ◽  
Biodiversity Offsets ◽  
Legislative Amendments

Australia’s terrestrial environment has been dramatically modified since European colonisation. Deforestation – the clearing and modification of native forest for agricultural, urban and industrial development – remains a significant threat to Australia’s biodiversity. Substantial policy reform over the last 40 years has delivered a range of policy instruments aimed to control deforestation across all Australian States and Territories. Despite these policy efforts – as well as strong governance and high institutional capacity – deforestation rates in Australia were nonetheless globally significant at the turn of this century. Legislation introduced in Queensland and New South Wales during the mid-2000s was at the time seen to have effectively ended broad-scale clearing; however, recent policy changes have raised concerns that Australia may again become a global hotspot for deforestation. Here, I describe the deforestation trends, drivers and policy responses in Australia over the last four decades. Using satellite imagery of forest cover and deforestation events across Australia between 1972 and 2014, I present a comprehensive analysis of deforestation rates at a fine resolution. I discuss trends in deforestation with reference to the institutional, macroeconomic and environmental conditions that are associated with human-induced forest loss in Australia. I provide a detailed history and critique of the native vegetation policies introduced across Australia over the last 40 years, including recent legislative amendments and reviews. Finally, I comment on future prospects for curbing deforestation in Australia, including the role of incentive-based policies such as carbon farming, private land conservation and biodiversity offsets. Despite being a highly active policy space, very little is known of the effectiveness of policy responses to deforestation in Australia, and whether the recent shift away from ‘command and control’ policies will necessarily lead to better outcomes. My analysis demonstrates the need for an effective policy mix to curb deforestation in Australia, including a greater focus on monitoring, evaluation and policy learning.

scholarly journals Realizing Expectations from Planting Trees on Private Land in Ontario, Canada

2020 ◽  
Vol 78 ◽  
pp. 1-9
Author(s):  
Heather MacDonald ◽  
Daniel McKenney ◽  
Kerry McLaven ◽  
Suzanne Perry
Keyword(s):  
Online Survey ◽  
Forest Cover ◽  
Local Environment ◽  
Well Being ◽  
Wildlife Habitat ◽  
Tree Planting ◽  
Native Forest ◽  
Private Land ◽  
Planted Forests ◽  
The Cost

This study explores the motivations behind participation in tree planting programs by private landowners in Ontario, Canada, as well as perceptions as to whether benefits were realized up to ten years after trees were planted. Forests Ontario, which has offered tree planting support programs in this province since 2007, provides up to 90% of the cost of seedlings for tree planting projects at least one hectare (ha) in size. This online survey of 570 former participants in tree planting programs indicated that a desire to create a habitat for wildlife (77.6%) was the most common motivation for taking part in a tree planting program. Concern with restoring native forest cover was also a reason for most participants (71.4%), as well as with improving soil, air and water quality (54.8%), and addressing climate change (54.3%). The most common benefit of planting trees was an increase in well-being and enjoyment of their property (67% of respondents). Overall, 27% of respondents with a desire to increase wildlife habitat, and 20% of those wishing to improve their local environment reported an improvement after tree planting. Reported improvements in the local environment and wildlife increased with time since tree planting, whereas enhanced well-being and enjoyment of the property were evident among participants even with newly planted trees.

Reviewing the role of habitat banking and tradable development rights in the conservation policy mix

2015 ◽  
Vol 42 (4) ◽  
pp. 294-305 ◽  
Author(s):  
RUI SANTOS ◽  
CHRISTOPH SCHRÖTER-SCHLAACK ◽  
PAULA ANTUNES ◽  
IRENE RING ◽  
PEDRO CLEMENTE
Keyword(s):  
Land Use ◽  
Biodiversity Conservation ◽  
Land Use Planning ◽  
Social Impact ◽  
Policy Instruments ◽  
Conservation Policy ◽  
Time Lags ◽  
Policy Mix ◽  
Biodiversity Offsets ◽  
Development Rights

SUMMARYHabitat banking and tradable development rights (TDR) have gained considerable currency as a way of achieving ‘no net loss’ of biodiversity and of reconciling nature conservation with economic development goals. This paper reviews the use of these instruments for biodiversity conservation and assesses their roles in the policy mix. The two instruments are compared in terms of effectiveness, cost effectiveness, social impact, institutional context and legal requirements. The role in the policy mix is discussed highlighting sequential relationships, as well as complementarities or synergies, redundancy and conflicts with other instruments, such as biodiversity offsets and land-use zoning.Habitat banking and TDR have the potential to contribute to biodiversity conservation objectives and attain cost-effective solutions with positive social impacts on local communities and landowners. They can also help to create a new mind-set more favourable to public-private cooperation in biodiversity conservation. At the same time, these policy instruments face a number of theoretical and implementation challenges, such as additionality and equivalence of offsets, endurance of land-use planning regulations, monitoring of offset performance, or time lags between restoration and resulting conservation benefits.A clear, enforceable regulatory approach is a prerequisite for the success of habitat banking and TDR. In return, these schemes provide powerful incentives for compliance with regulatory norms and ensure a more equitable allocation of the benefits and costs of land-use controls and conservation. Environmentally harmful subsidies in other policy sectors as well as alternative offset options, however, reduce the attractiveness and effectiveness of these instruments. Thus, the overall performance of habitat banking and TDR hinges on how they are integrated into the biodiversity conservation policy mix and fine-tuned with other sectoral policies.

scholarly journals The Effectiveness of China’s National Forest Protection Program and National-level Nature Reserves, 2000 to 2010

2013 ◽  
Author(s):  
Guopeng Ren ◽  
Stephen S. Young ◽  
Lin Wang ◽  
Wei Wang ◽  
Yongcheng Long ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Forest Cover ◽  
National Level ◽  
Mainland China ◽  
Canopy Cover ◽  
Nature Reserves ◽  
National Forest ◽  
Natural Forests ◽  
Forest Protection ◽  
Deforestation Rate ◽  
Deforestation Rates

There is profound interest in knowing the degree to which China’s institutions are capable of protecting its natural forests and biodiversity in the face of economic and political change. China’s two most important forest protection policies are its National Forest Protection Program (NFPP) and its National-level Nature Reserves (NNRs). The NFPP was implemented in 17 provinces starting in the year 2000 in response to deforestation-caused flooding. We used MODIS data (MOD13Q1) to estimate forest cover and forest loss across mainland China, and we report that 1.765 million km2or 18.7% of mainland China was covered in forest (12.3%, canopy cover > 70%) and woodland (6.4%, 40% ≤ canopy cover < 70%) in 2000. By 2010, a total of 480,203 km2of forest+woodland was lost, amounting to an annual deforestation rate of 2.7%. The forest-only loss was 127,473 km2, or 1.05% annually. The three most rapidly deforested provinces were outside NFPP jurisdiction, in the southeast. Within the NFPP provinces, the annual forest+woodland loss rate was 2.26%, and the forest-only rate was 0.62%. Because these loss rates are likely overestimates, China appears to have achieved, and even exceeded, its NFPP target of reducing deforestation to 1.1% annually in the target provinces. We also assemble the first-ever polygon dataset for China’s forested NNRs (n=237), which covered 74,030 km2in 2000. Conventional unmatched and covariate-matching analyses both find that about two-thirds of China’s NNRs exhibit effectiveness in protecting forest cover and that within-NNR deforestation rates are higher in provinces that have higher overall deforestation.

scholarly journals Principles of Kyoto and Emissions Trading Systems: A Primer for Energy Lawyers

2020 ◽  
Author(s):  
Brian Evans
Keyword(s):  
Climate Change ◽  
Kyoto Protocol ◽  
Emissions Trading ◽  
Policy Instruments ◽  
Trading Systems ◽  
Policy Responses ◽  
Legislative Authority ◽  
Depth Analysis ◽  
Potential Impact

The Kyoto Protocol defines new emissions standards to be met by the international community in respect of greenhouse gases, the aim of which is to curb the present trend of adverse climate change. The specific responses of ratifying governments to bring about the desired changes will significantly impact citizenry and industry alike. This article addresses the issues surrounding emissions trading systems as market-based policy instruments that may ultimately contribute to Canada s legislative response to the Kyoto standards. Central to this question is the need to familiarize legal practitioners with the implications of climate change and the range of policy responses available to government in the context of emissions trading systems. The author examines responses open to the governments of Canada and Alberta through a review of the international reaction to climate change, the role of emissions trading in environmental regulation generally and the anticipated use of emissions trading to comply with the Kyoto Protocol in the future. The author presents an in-depth analysis of the principles underlying the design of domestic emissions trading systems, of the legislative authority surrounding their implementation and of the need for affected businesses to strategically plan for ensuing changes. The author concludes that while Canada has not yet adopted a policy on domestic emissions trading systems in respect of the Kyoto Protocol, the potential impact of emission standards on domestic sources is pronounced, meriting an inspection of the design features that may form a pan of such trading schemes.

Ecology of the Atlantic Forest

Ecology ◽  
2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
Elise Damstra ◽  
Cristina Banks-Leite
Keyword(s):  
Atlantic Forest ◽  
Forest Cover ◽  
Time Lag ◽  
Native Forest ◽  
Important Species ◽  
Habitat Transformation ◽  
Golden Lion Tamarin ◽  
Palm Heart ◽  
In The Wild ◽  
Unique Domain

Extending along the southern coast of Brazil, into Argentina and Paraguay, the Atlantic Forest is a domain that once covered 150 Mha and includes many distinct forest subtypes and ecosystems. Its large latitudinal (29˚) and altitudinal (0–2,800 m above sea level) range, as well as complex topography in the region, has created microclimates within forest subtypes, which has led to biodiversity specifically adapted to narrow ecological ranges. The region is incredibly species-rich and is home to charismatic or economically important species such as the black and golden lion tamarin, the red-browned Amazon parrot, and the highly prized palm heart from Euterpe edulis. Through widespread human-driven change dating back to the arrival of European settlers in 1500, this realm has been extensively reduced, fragmented, and modified. Nowadays, this region is home to about 130 million people (60 percent of the Brazilian population) and is responsible for producing 70 percent of Brazil’s GDP, putting a strain on natural resources and providing challenges to conservation. Due to its high levels of endemic species coupled with a high threat of habitat loss and fragmentation, the Atlantic Forest has been identified as a “biodiversity hotspot.” Numerous studies have assessed the effects of habitat transformation on biodiversity and the consensus is that the majority of species are negatively affected. It is puzzling however that few species have actually gone extinct in the wild, even if some extinctions might have gone undetected. Extinctions do not immediately follow habitat change, there is often a time lag of many decades between habitat transformation and extinction. This may suggest that many species in the Atlantic Forest are “living deads,” as despite their presence the available habitat no longer supports their requirements. It also suggests that there is a window of opportunity to restoring the domain to avert extinctions before they are realized. Current research and policy actions are geared toward optimizing restoration and increasing the extent of native forest cover, bringing hope to the conservation of this unique domain.

Landscape fragmentation

2010 ◽  
Author(s):  
Ned Horning ◽  
Julie A. Robinson ◽  
Eleanor J. Sterling ◽  
Woody Turner ◽  
Sacha Spector
Keyword(s):  
Forest Fragmentation ◽  
Landscape Metrics ◽  
Forest Cover ◽  
Remotely Sensed ◽  
Clear Understanding ◽  
Remotely Sensed Data ◽  
Deforestation Rates ◽  
Habitat Conversion ◽  
Conservation Organizations ◽  
Total Core Area

The country of Vietnam has long been recognized as an important region for biodiversity (Sterling et al. 2006). High-profile discoveries in the 1990s of many species new to science including large ones such as the Saola (Pseudoryx nghetinhensis), an 85 kg basal member of the cattle subfamily Bovinae and the first new genus of large land-dwelling mammal described since the okapi (Okapia johnstoni) in 1901, have focused the attention of national and international conservation organizations on Vietnam and surrounding countries in mainland Southeast Asia (Hurley et al. in prep.). Conservation action for these endemic, endangered species relies on a clear understanding of trends in habitat conversion. To track deforestation rates through time in Vietnam, Meyfroidt and Lambin (2008) combined remotely sensed data with landscape metrics such as number of patches, mean patch size, mean proximity index, and total core area index. They tested their analyses across a variety of land cover studies including those using Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR), Landsat, SPOT, and MODIS data sources. They found that forest cover decreased nationally from the 1980s to the 1990s and then showed an increase between 1990 and 2000, due to plantation forests as well as natural forest regeneration. However, the effects of this forest transition on fragmentation metrics noted above differed across the country. For instance, in some places, such as central Vietnam where forest cover is relatively large and well connected, reforestation led to a decrease in forest fragmentation and secondary forests recovered rapidly. However in others, such as areas in the north where forest fragmentation dates back centuries and forests have therefore long been isolated, reforestation did not seem to have an impact on continued fragmentation and habitat loss. In this chapter we detail the importance of fragmentation and landscape metrics to ecology and conservation, outlining when and where remotely sensed data can help in these analyses. We then discuss a subset of fragmentation metrics and point to some challenges in processing fragmentation data. We provide examples of composition and connectivity metrics illuminated with examples from the remote sensing literature.

scholarly journals Nursery Cultural Techniques Facilitate Restoration of Acacia koa Competing with Invasive Grass in a Dry Tropical Forest

Forests ◽  
2020 ◽  
Vol 11 (11) ◽  
pp. 1124
Author(s):  
Douglass F. Jacobs ◽  
Anthony S. Davis ◽  
R. Kasten Dumroese ◽  
Owen T. Burney
Keyword(s):  
Forest Restoration ◽  
Forest Cover ◽  
Seedling Survival ◽  
Tree Canopy ◽  
Anthropogenic Activity ◽  
Native Forest ◽  
Forest Trees ◽  
Acacia Koa ◽  
Mean Values ◽  
Kikuyu Grass

Anthropogenic activity has caused persistent and prominent losses of forest cover in dry tropical forests. Natural regeneration of forest trees in grazed areas often fails due to lack of seed sources and consumption by ungulates. To address this, the effective restoration of such sites often requires fencing and outplanting nursery-grown seedlings. In the degraded, dry forests of tropical Hawaii, USA, an additional challenge to restoration of native forest trees is the introduced kikuyu grass (Cenchrus clandestinus). This invasive, rapidly growing rhizomatous plant forms deep, dense mats. We studied the use of nursery cultural techniques to facilitate the establishment of koa (Acacia koa) seedlings outplanted amidst well-established kikuyu grass on a volcanic cinder cone on the dry, western side of Hawaii Island. Seedlings were grown four months in three container sizes (49, 164, 656 cm3) and with four rates (0, 4.8, 7.2, and 9.6 kg m−3) of 15–9–12 (NPK) controlled-release fertilizer incorporated into media prior to sowing. After 16 months in the field, seedling survival was > 80% for all treatments with two exceptions: the non-fertilized 49 cm3 (78%) and 164 cm3 (24%) containers. After 10 years, only these two treatments had significantly lower survival (35% and 10%, respectively) than the other treatments. One year following planting, none of the non-fertilized seedlings had transitioned to phyllodes from juvenile true leaves, regardless of container size. For the fertilized 656 cm3 container treatment, 78%–85% of seedlings had phyllodes, with mean values increasing by fertilizer rate. Phyllodes are known to confer greater drought resistance than true leaves in koa, which may help to explain the improved survival of fertilized trees on this relatively dry site. Overall, nursery fertilization was more influential on seedling height and diameter response than container size after outplanting. However, the largest container (656 cm3) with the addition of fertilizer, produced significantly larger trees than all other treatments during the early regeneration phase; early growth differences tended to fade at 10 years due to inter-tree canopy competition. Although koa is able to fix atmospheric nitrogen through rhizobium associations, our data confirm the importance of nursery fertilization in promoting regeneration establishment. Nursery cultural techniques may play an important role in forest restoration of dry tropical sites invaded by exotic vegetation.

scholarly journals Impacts of deforestation on water balance components of a watershed on the Brazilian East Coast

2014 ◽  
Vol 38 (4) ◽  
pp. 1350-1358 ◽  
Author(s):  
Donizete dos Reis Pereira ◽  
André Quintão de Almeida ◽  
Mauro Aparecido Martinez ◽  
David Rafael Quintão Rosa
Keyword(s):  
Water Balance ◽  
Forest Cover ◽  
East Coast ◽  
Swat Model ◽  
Native Forest ◽  
Efficiency Coefficient ◽  
Water Balance Components ◽  
The Real ◽  
Calibration And Validation ◽  
Creek Watershed

The Brazilian East coast was intensely affected by deforestation, which drastically cut back the original biome. The possible impacts of this process on water resources are still unknown. The purpose of this study was an evaluation of the impacts of deforestation on the main water balance components of the Galo creek watershed, in the State of Espírito Santo, on the East coast of Brazil. Considering the real conditions of the watershed, the SWAT model was calibrated with data from 1997 to 2000 and validated for the period between 2001 and 2003. The calibration and validation processes were evaluated by the Nash-Sutcliffe efficiency coefficient and by the statistical parameters (determination coefficient, slope coefficient and F test) of the regression model adjusted for estimated and measured flow data. After calibration and validation of the model, new simulations were carried out for three different land use scenarios: a scenario in compliance with the law (C1), assuming the preservation of PPAs (permanent preservation areas); an optimistic scenario (C2), which considers the watershed to be almost entirely covered by native vegetation; and a pessimistic scenario (C3), in which the watershed would be almost entirely covered by pasture. The scenarios C1, C2 and C3 represent a soil cover of native forest of 76, 97 and 0 %, respectively. The results were compared with the simulation, considering the real scenario (C0) with 54 % forest cover. The Nash-Sutcliffe coefficients were 0.65 and 0.70 for calibration and validation, respectively, indicating satisfactory results in the flow simulation. A mean reduction of 10 % of the native forest cover would cause a mean annual increase of approximately 11.5 mm in total runoff at the watershed outlet. Reforestation would ensure minimum flows in the dry period and regulate the maximum flow of the main watercourse of the watershed.

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