The ice, which is frequently observed to collect at the bottom of streams and rivers, differs in appearance from that which is formed at the surface; for, instead of assuming the shape of solid glass like plates, it has more the appearance of aggregated masses of snow, and is composed of small crystals of ice adhering together irregularly, either by their sides or angles. Rivers are sometimes so choked up by accumulations of ground-ice of this description, that they are not only impeded in their course, but also raised considerably above their banks. While in this state, a slight change in the weather will frequently occasion the complete disengagement of this ice from the bottom; so that, in a very short space of time, the river returns into its natural channel; and then, although it may be frozen at the surface, it continues to flow over a perfectly clear bottom. All these phenomena are considered by the author as perfectly explicable on the theory he advances, of different degrees of radiation of heat occurring from the bottom according to variations of circumstances. He conceives that when this radiation takes place from the solid opake materials of the bed of the stream, through the stratum of transparent water, congelation is induced on that portion of fluid, already cooled down to the freezing-point, which is in immediate contact with the radiating body. The circumstances which, by favouring radiation, contribute to this effect, are, principally, great clearness of the sky, and great transparency of the water; the bottom of the river being cooled below the freezing-point sooner than the water which is flowing over it; and the ice, formed at the bottom, remaining attached to it, as long as the heat which is transmitted from below continues to be lost by radiation. The formation of ground-ice is favoured by the intestine motions incident to a rapid current; because the different strata of fluid, which in still water would have arranged themselves, according to their specific gravities, in the order most conducive to the congelation of the surface, being continually mixed together, the whole body of water is cooled more uniformly. The Society then adjourned over the Easter recess to meet again on the 30th instant.
Natural channel protein inserts and functions in a completely artificial, solid-supported bilayer membrane