In this chapter, the researcher discusses a study from the United States in which the subjective nature of criteria used for advanced course selection by middle school administrators and core content teachers is evaluated. The use of arbitrary factors by educators in decisions related to moving students into advanced courses disproportionately excludes African American students and other marginalized student groups from upper level course-taking opportunities when compared to Caucasian students. The unequal access for African American students to enter advanced courses limits the operational citizenship of these students and increases opportunity gaps, attainment gaps, and achievement gaps within public education systems. In order to narrow the distance between Caucasian students' opportunities and achievement and those of African American students, middle school educators must commit to eliminating the use of subjective criteria in all course placement decisions.
The Role of Protective Factors in Supporting the Academic Achievement of Poor African American Students During the Middle School Transition
