Charge transfer state characterization and voltage losses of organic solar cells

A correct determination of voltage losses is crucial for the development of organic solar cells with improved performance. This requires an in-depth understanding of the properties of interfacial charge transfer (CT) states, which not only set the upper limit for the open-circuit voltage of a system, but also govern radiative and non-radiative recombination processes. Over the last decade, different approaches have emerged to classify voltage losses in organic solar cells that rely on a generic detailed balance approach or additionally include CT state parameters that are specific to organic solar cells. In the latter case, a correct determination of CT state properties is paramount. In this work, we summarize the different frameworks used today to calculate voltage losses and provide an in-depth discussion of the currently most important models used to characterize CT state properties from absorption and emission data of organic thin films and solar cells. We also address practical concerns during the data recording, analysis, and fitting process. Departing from the classical two-state Marcus theory approach, we discuss the importance of quantized molecular vibrations and energetic hybridization effects in organic donor-acceptor systems with the goal to providing the reader with a detailed understanding of when each model is most appropriate.