The Lithium Group

2010 ◽  
Author(s):  
George K. Schweitzer ◽  
Lester L. Pesterfield
Keyword(s):  
Charge Density ◽  
Quantum Number ◽  
Oxidation State ◽  
Periodic Table ◽  
Alkali Metals ◽  
Principal Quantum Number ◽  
Horizontal Line ◽  
Outer Electron ◽  
Aqueous Chemistry ◽  
Figure Legend

The elements which constitute Group 1 of the Periodic Table are known as the alkali metals. They are lithium Li, sodium Na, potassium K, rubidium Rb, cesium Cs, and francium Fr. (Sometimes the NH4+ ion is included among these since it resembles K+ or Rb+ in many of its reactions.) All six of the elements have atoms characterized by an outer electron structure of ns1 with n representing the principal quantum number. The elements exhibit marked resemblances to each other with Li deviating the most. This deviation is assignable to the small size of Li which causes the positive charge of Li+ to be concentrated, that is, the charge density is high. All of the elements exhibit oxidation numbers of 0 and I, with exceptions being rare, such that their chemistries are dominated by the oxidation state I. The six metals are exceptionally reactive, being strong reductants, reacting with HOH at all pH values to give H2 and M+, and having hydroxides MOH which are strong and soluble. Ionic sizes in pm for the members of the group are as follows: Li (76), Na (102), K (139), Rb (152), Cs (167), and Fr (180). The E° values for the M+/M couples are as follows: Li (−3.04 v), Na (−2.71 v), K (−2.93 v), Rb (−2.92 v), Cs (−2.92 v), and Fr (about −3.03 v). a. E–pH diagram. The E–pH diagram for 10−1.0 M Li is presented in Figure 5.1. The figure legend provides an equation for the line that separates Li+ and Li. The horizontal line appears at an E value of −3.10 v. Considerably above the Li+/Li line, the HOH ≡ H+/H2 line appears, which indicates that Li metal is unstable in HOH, reacting with it to produce H2 and Li+. Note further that Li+ dominates the diagram reflecting that the aqueous chemistry of Li is largely that of the ion Li+.

The Boron Group

2010 ◽  
Author(s):  
George K. Schweitzer ◽  
Lester L. Pesterfield
Keyword(s):  
Charge Density ◽  
Oxidation State ◽  
Periodic Table ◽  
Principal Quantum Number ◽  
The Other ◽  
Outer Electron ◽  
Separate Species ◽  
High Charge ◽  
High Charge Density ◽  
Figure Legend

The elements which constitute the Boron Group of the Periodic Table are boron B, aluminum Al, gallium Ga, indium In, and thallium Tl. All five of the elements have atoms characterized by an outer electron structure of ns2np1 with n representing the principal quantum number. There are marked similarities in the elements, except for B whose small size and high charge density make it a non-metal. B evidences an oxidation state of III but shows no aqueous cation chemistry. The other elements all show cation chemistries involving an oxidation state of III, but the I oxidation state becomes progressively more stable until at Tl it is the predominant state. All ions in the group are colorless. Ionic sizes in pm are B+3(27), Al+3(53), Ga+3(62), In+3(80), Tl+3(89), and Tl+(150), with the B+3 value being hypothetical since B bonds only covalently. In line with the increasing sizes, the basicity of the oxides and hydroxides increases: H3BO3 or B(OH)3 is weakly acidic, M(OH)3 for Al, Ga, and In are amphoteric, and Tl(OH)3 or Tl2O3 is basic. The E° values in volts for the M(III)/M couples are as follows: H3BO3/B (−0.89), Al+3/Al (−1.68), Ga+3/Ga (−0.55), and In+3/In (−0.35). The E° value for the Tl+/Tl couple is −0.33 v. a. E–pH diagram. The E–pH diagram for 10−1.0 M B is presented in Figure 7.1. In the figure legend are equations which describe the lines which separate species. Considerably above the H3BO3/B line, the HOH≡H+/H2 line appears, which indicates that elemental B is thermodynamically unstable in HOH, but in practice B has a strong tendency to be non-reactive, vigorous treatment usually being required to oxidize it.

scholarly journals CONTRADICTION TO THE TABLE OF D. I. MENDELEEV AND THEIR ELIMINATION

2021 ◽  
Vol 2 (446) ◽  
pp. 14-21
Author(s):  
N.К. Akhmetov ◽  
G.U. Ilyasova ◽  
S. K. Kazybekova
Keyword(s):  
Quantum Number ◽  
Periodic Table ◽  
Chemical Elements ◽  
Principal Quantum Number ◽  
Quantum States ◽  
Outer Electron ◽  
New Approach ◽  
Electronic Configurations ◽  
New Formula ◽  
Electron Shells

The article discusses a new approach to the formation of periods of the Periodic Table of Mendeleev. With the help of the new formula and the first proposed quantum states of the outer electron shells of atoms of chemical elements, the periods of the periodic table are reformatted. It is supposed to reduce the number of periods in the table by introducing the corresponding sub-periods. This is confirmed by the material given in the article. The following description of the order of formation of electron layers is proposed: the principal quantum number (n), then the newly proposed quantum states of electrons («first» and «second»), which in turn constitute the electronic configurations of sub-periods in periods, and only then the remaining quantum orbitals (s, p, d and f).

The Beryllium Group

2010 ◽  
Author(s):  
George K. Schweitzer ◽  
Lester L. Pesterfield
Keyword(s):  
Charge Density ◽  
Principal Quantum Number ◽  
The Other ◽  
Outer Electron ◽  
Protective Oxide ◽  
Ph Values ◽  
Figure Legend ◽  
Alkaline Earths ◽  
Ph Range ◽  
Reactive Metals

The elements which constitute the Be Group of the Periodic Table are known as the alkaline earths. They are beryllium Be, magnesium Mg, calcium Ca, strontium Sr, barium Ba, and radium Ra. All six of the elements have atoms characterized by an outer electron structure of ns2 with n representing the principal quantum number. The elements exhibit marked resemblances to each other with Be differing considerably. This deviation is assignable to the small size of Be which causes the positive charge of Be+2 to be concentrated, that is, the charge density is high. The higher charge-density ions attack HOH to attach OH− and to liberate H+, that is, they hydrolyze readily. All of the elements exhibit oxidation numbers of 0 and II, with their chemistries being dominated by the oxidation state II. The six metals are exceptionally reactive, being strong reductants, reacting with acids, HOH, and bases at all pH values to give H2. The other product of such reactions are M+2 ions and M(OH)2, the ions being present at lower pH values and the hydroxides being present at higher pH values. The transition from M+2 to M(OH)2 occurs at increasing pH values from Be to Ra, such that the hydroxide of Sr is slightly soluble and those of Ba and Ra are soluble. These soluble hydroxides are strong bases. Ionic sizes in pm for the members of the group are as follows: Be (59), Mg (72), Ca (100), Sr (132), Ba (135), and Ra (148). The E° values for the M+2/M couples are as follows: Be (−1.97 v), Mg (−2.36 v), Ca (−2.87 v), Sr (−2.89 v), Ba (−2.91 v), and Ra (−2.91 v), indicating that they are very reactive metals. a. E–pH diagram. The E–pH diagram for 10−1.0 M Be is presented in Figure 6.1. In the figure legend are equations which describe the lines separating the species. It can be seen that Be is thermodynamically unstable with respect to H+, HOH, and OH−. However, Be is relatively inactive in the middle pH range due to a protective oxide coat. To dissolve Be, dilute acids such as HCl or H2SO4, or bases such as NaOH or KOH are required.

scholarly journals DERIVATION OF A NEW EQUATION FOR CALCULATING THE NUMBER OF ELECTRONS CORRESPONDING TO DIFFERENT VALUES OF THE PRINCIPAL QUANTUM NUMBER

2021 ◽  
Vol 9 (07) ◽  
pp. 715-719
Author(s):  
N.K. Akhmetov ◽  
Keyword(s):  
Quantum Number ◽  
Quantum State ◽  
Periodic Table ◽  
Chemical Elements ◽  
Principal Quantum Number ◽  
Quantum States ◽  
New Approach ◽  
New Equation ◽  
Suggested Formula ◽  
Electron Shells

This paper deals with a new approach in the formation of periods in the Mendeleevs Periodic Table. Using a newly suggested formula and newly suggested quantum states for the external electron shells of atoms of chemical elements, the author proposed the reconfiguration of periods in the Mendeleevs table. The reducing of the number of periods in the table is assumed, andthe material represented in the paper proves it.The following order of formation of electron layers is suggested: the principle quantum number (n), followed by the quantum state of electrons (first and second) which constitute the electron configurations of subperiods, and only after that - the remaining quantum orbitals (s, d, f, and p).

The Fluorine Group

2010 ◽  
Author(s):  
George K. Schweitzer ◽  
Lester L. Pesterfield
Keyword(s):  
Oxidation State ◽  
Half Life ◽  
Periodic Table ◽  
The Other ◽  
Outer Electron ◽  
Ionic Radii ◽  
Quantum Numbers ◽  
Oxidizing Power ◽  
Soluble Species ◽  
Insoluble Compounds

The Fluorine Group of the Periodic Table, whose elements are known as halogens (Greek halos and genes, meaning salt-forming), consists of fluorine F, chlorine Cl, bromine Br, iodine I, and astatine At. The outer electron structure ns2np5 characterizes all five of the elements, with n representing principal quantum numbers 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6, respectively. The ns2np5 indicates that oxidation number possibilities are −I, I, III, V, and VII with F showing only −I (except for the unstable HOF). The bonding in the oxidation state of −I is sometimes ionic and sometimes covalent, while that in the other states is covalent. Fluorine is the most electronegative element in the Periodic Table, and as one descends the group, the electronegativities decrease. Fluorine stands out as considerably different from the other elements, there being numerous discontinuities in properties between it and Cl. Astatine also differs from the other elements in that all its isotopes are radioactive, the longlived At-210 having a half life of 8.1 days. Covalent radii in pm are as follows: F(71), Cl(99), Br(114), I(133), and At (147). Ionic radii in pm are as: F−(119), Cl−(167), Br−(182), and I−(206). a. E–pH diagram. Figure 11.1 depicts the E–pH diagram for F with the soluble species (except H+) at 10−1.0 M. The diagram is valid only in the absence of substances with which F forms soluble complexes or insoluble compounds. The species which have been considered are F2, OF2, F−, HF, and HF2−. This last species is not very stable and will appear on the diagram only at higher F− concentrations. It shows up in between HF and F−. The E–pH diagram emphasizes the very strong oxidizing power of F2 and indicates that it will easily attack HOH to produce OF2. The species oxygen fluoride OF2 is also unstable but persists in solution longer than F2.

Zur Kenntnis der Dihalogen-tris-(4-dimethylamino-phenyl)-Verbindungen von Phosphor, Arsen, Antimon und Wismut / Dihalogeno-tris- (4-dimethylamino-phenyl) -Compounds of Phosphorus, Arsenic, Antimony, and Bismuth

1972 ◽  
Vol 27 (6) ◽  
pp. 591-595 ◽  
Author(s):  
Jörn-Michael Keck ◽  
Günter Klar
Keyword(s):  
Chemical Shift ◽  
Quantum Number ◽  
Principal Quantum Number ◽  
Valence Electrons ◽  
Phenyl Compounds ◽  
Atomic Parameters

The synthesis of the dihalogeno-tris-(4-dimethylamino-phenyl)-compounds Ar2EX2 (E = P, As, Sb; X = Cl, Br, J and E = Sb, X = F; E = Bi, X = Cl) is described. A generally valid correlation between the chemical shift of the n.m.r. signal of an atom and the atomic parameters electronegativity and principal quantum number of valence electrons is deduced.

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