Landscape of scalar meanings

2017 ◽  
Author(s):  
Osamu Sawada
Keyword(s):  
Dual Use ◽  
Conventional Implicature ◽  
Similarities And Differences ◽  
Scalar Modifiers

Chapter 2 provides the landscape of scalar meanings and highlights the target phenomenon of this book—the phenomenon of the dual use of scalar modifiers. More specifically, four kinds of scalar meanings are introduced: at-issue scalar meaning, conversational scalar meaning, presuppositional scalar meaning, and conventional implicature (CI) scalar meaning. There follows an informal examination of the dual-use phenomenon of scalar modifiers where a scalar modifier can express an at-issue scalar meaning and a CI scalar meaning. The similarities and differences between a CI and a presupposition are also considered. It is claimed that a CI and a presupposition belong to a different class of meaning and should theoretically be treated differently.

Introduction

2017 ◽  
Author(s):  
Osamu Sawada
Keyword(s):  
Historical Development ◽  
Dual Use ◽  
The Core ◽  
Similarities And Differences ◽  
Conventional Implicatures ◽  
Scalar Modifiers

Chapter 1 introduces the aim and the target phenomenon of this book, that is, the dual-use phenomenon of scalar modifiers and the meaning and use of pragmatic scalar modifiers. After a brief overview of the current views on the notion of conventional implicatures (CIs) and the semantics/pragmatics interface, and observation of data for the dual-use phenomenon of pragmatic scalar modifiers, this book raises questions concerning (i) the similarities and differences between at-issue scalar meanings and CI (not-at-issue) scalar meanings, (ii) variations in pragmatic scalar modifiers, (iii) the interpretations of embedded pragmatic scalar modifiers, and (iv) the historical development of pragmatic scalar modifiers. It then also briefly outlines the core ideas and analytical directions used for answering these questions.

Conclusion

2017 ◽  
Author(s):  
Osamu Sawada
Keyword(s):  
Historical Development ◽  
Theoretic Approach ◽  
Multidimensional Approach ◽  
Dual Use ◽  
Future Directions ◽  
Alternative Approaches ◽  
Similarities And Differences ◽  
Scalar Modifiers ◽  
Issue Content

Chapter 10 summarizes the book’s analyses and proposal regarding (i) similarities and differences between semantic scalar modifiers and pragmatic scalar modifiers, (ii) variations in pragmatic scalar modifiers, (iii) interpretations of embedded pragmatic scalar modifiers, and (iv) the historical development of pragmatic scalar modifiers, and considers theoretical implications. The dual-use phenomenon of scalar modifiers and the interpretations of pragmatic scalar modifiers suggest that although there is a difference between at-issue and not-at-issue meanings, they have a flexible relationship. The chapter argues that both types of meanings must be captured in a unified or flexible fashion. This multidimensional approach is compared to other alternative approaches: the relevance-theoretic approach and Bach’s approach, which does not assume the notion of a CI. Finally, possible future directions for studies of pragmatic scalar modifiers and not-at-issue content are briefly considered.

Comparison with an indeterminate pronoun

2017 ◽  
Author(s):  
Osamu Sawada
Keyword(s):  
Scale Structure ◽  
Dual Use ◽  
Discourse Context ◽  
Individual Comparison ◽  
Similarities And Differences ◽  
Striking Parallelism

Chapter 4 focuses on the dual-use phenomenon of comparison with an indeterminate pronoun in Japanese (and other languages) and considers the similarities and differences between at-issue comparative meaning (i.e. individual comparison) and a CI comparative meaning (i.e. noteworthy comparison). Although an individual comparison and a noteworthy comparison are compositionally and dimensionally different, there is a striking parallelism in terms of the scale structure. The chapter explains the similarities and differences between the two kinds of comparison in a systematic way. It also considers the role of scalarity and comparison in a discourse context and argues that they provide a way of signaling to what extent an at-issue utterance contributes to the goal of the conversation. The timing of signaling information on noteworthiness in a discourse and its pragmatic effect are also discussed.

The logic of conventional implicatures

2017 ◽  
Author(s):  
Osamu Sawada
Keyword(s):  
Type Systems ◽  
Semantic Type ◽  
Conventional Implicature ◽  
Starting Point ◽  
Conventional Implicatures ◽  
Scalar Modifiers

Chapter 3 introduces the logic of conventional implicatures (CIs), which provide a starting point for analyzing the meanings of CI scalar modifiers and considering the relation between at-issue scalar meanings and CI scalar meanings in a more theoretical way. The logic of Cis introduced in this chapter is multidimensional. That is, in addition to a regular semantic type and compositional rules, it introduces the type systems of conventional implicature and various interpretive rules based on the systems, including CI application (Potts 2005), shunting application (McCready 2010), mixed application (McCready 2010; Gutzmann 2011), and expressive application (Gutzmann 2011; McCready 2010; Sawada 2013). These rules will be explained based on various examples such as epithets, honorifics, supplements, and diminutives.

Pragmatic Aspects of Scalar Modifiers

2017 ◽  
Author(s):  
Osamu Sawada
Keyword(s):  
Detailed Analysis ◽  
Historical Development ◽  
Positive Polarity ◽  
Semantic Level ◽  
Pragmatic Information ◽  
Semantics And Pragmatics ◽  
Semantic Shift ◽  
Similarities And Differences ◽  
Scalar Modifiers ◽  
Pragmatic Aspects

This book investigates pragmatic aspects of scalar modifiers. Through a detailed analysis of the semantics and pragmatics of comparatives with indeterminate pronouns, positive polarity minimizers, intensifiers, and expectation-reversal adverbs in Japanese and other languages, the book shows that scalarity is utilized not just for measuring a thing/event in the semantic level, but also for expressing various kinds of pragmatic information, including politeness, priority of utterance, the speaker’s attitude, and unexpectedness, at the level of conventional implicature (CI). The similarities and differences between at-issue and CI scalar meanings are analyzed using a multidimensional composition system (Potts 2005; McCready 2010). Two types of pragmatic scalar modifiers are proposed: a higher-level pragmatic scalar modifier, which utilizes an implicit pragmatic scale, and a lower-level pragmatic scalar modifier, which recycles the scale of an at-issue gradable predicate. The book also investigates the interpretations of pragmatic scalar modifiers that are embedded in the complement of an attitude predicate, and claims that there is a semantic shift from a CI to a secondary at-issue entailment in the case of non-speaker-oriented readings. It will also show that there is a phenomenon of “projection of not-at-issue meaning via modal support” in lower-level pragmatic scalar modifiers. Finally, the historical development of pragmatic scalar modifiers is also discussed. This book claims that although semantic scalar meanings and pragmatic (CI) scalar meanings are compositionally different, there is a relationship between the two, and it is important to look at both kinds of meaning in a uniform/flexible fashion.

Orosensory Perception, Speech Production, and Deafness

1973 ◽  
Vol 16 (2) ◽  
pp. 257-266 ◽  
Author(s):  
Milo E. Bishop ◽  
Robert L. Ringel ◽  
Arthur S. House
Keyword(s):  
High School ◽  
Speech Production ◽  
Poor Performance ◽  
Normal Hearing ◽  
The Other ◽  
Functional Disorders ◽  
Form Discrimination ◽  
School Subjects ◽  
Oral Form ◽  
Similarities And Differences

The oral form-discrimination abilities of 18 orally educated and oriented deaf high school subjects were determined and compared to those of manually educated and oriented deaf subjects and normal-hearing subjects. The similarities and differences among the responses of the three groups were discussed and then compared to responses elicited from subjects with functional disorders of articulation. In general, the discrimination scores separated the manual deaf from the other two groups, particularly when differences in form shapes were involved in the test. The implications of the results for theories relating orosensory-discrimination abilities are discussed. It is postulated that, while a failure in oroperceptual functioning may lead to disorders of articulation, a failure to use the oral mechanism for speech activities, even in persons with normal orosensory capabilities, may result in poor performance on oroperceptual tasks.

Animals as Social Objects

2016 ◽  
Vol 21 (3) ◽  
pp. 206-217 ◽  
Author(s):  
Verónica Sevillano ◽  
Susan T. Fiske
Keyword(s):  
Social Perception ◽  
Animal Species ◽  
Social Groups ◽  
Social Responses ◽  
Content Model ◽  
Stereotype Content ◽  
Nonhuman Animals ◽  
Behavioral Tendencies ◽  
Similarities And Differences ◽  
Sphere Of Influence

Abstract. Nonhuman animals are typically excluded from the scope of social psychology. This article presents animals as social objects – targets of human social responses – overviewing the similarities and differences with human targets. The focus here is on perceiving animal species as social groups. Reflecting the two fundamental dimensions of humans’ social cognition – perceived warmth (benign or ill intent) and competence (high or low ability), proposed within the Stereotype Content Model ( Fiske, Cuddy, Glick, & Xu, 2002 ) – animal stereotypes are identified, together with associated prejudices and behavioral tendencies. In line with human intergroup threats, both realistic and symbolic threats associated with animals are reviewed. As a whole, animals appear to be social perception targets within the human sphere of influence and a valid topic for research.

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