ABSTRACTPermafrost hosts a community of microorganisms that survive and reproduce for millennia despite extreme environmental conditions, such as water stress, subzero temperatures, high salinity, and low nutrient availability. Many studies focused on permafrost microbial community composition use DNA-based methods, such as metagenomics and 16S rRNA gene sequencing. However, these methods do not distinguish among active, dead, and dormant cells. This is of particular concern in ancient permafrost, where constant subzero temperatures preserve DNA from dead organisms and dormancy may be a common survival strategy. To circumvent this, we applied (i) LIVE/DEAD differential staining coupled with microscopy, (ii) endospore enrichment, and (iii) selective depletion of DNA from dead cells to permafrost microbial communities across a Pleistocene permafrost chronosequence (19,000, 27,000, and 33,000 years old). Cell counts and analysis of 16S rRNA gene amplicons from live, dead, and dormant cells revealed how communities differ between these pools, how they are influenced by soil physicochemical properties, and whether they change over geologic time. We found evidence that cells capable of forming endospores are not necessarily dormant and that members of the classBacilliwere more likely to form endospores in response to long-term stressors associated with permafrost environmental conditions than members of theClostridia, which were more likely to persist as vegetative cells in our older samples. We also found that removing exogenous “relic” DNA preserved within permafrost did not significantly alter microbial community composition. These results link the live, dead, and dormant microbial communities to physicochemical characteristics and provide insights into the survival of microbial communities in ancient permafrost.IMPORTANCEPermafrost soils store more than half of Earth’s soil carbon despite covering ∼15% of the land area (C. Tarnocai et al., Global Biogeochem Cycles 23:GB2023, 2009, https://doi.org/10.1029/2008GB003327). This permafrost carbon is rapidly degraded following a thaw (E. A. G. Schuur et al., Nature 520:171–179, 2015, https://doi.org/10.1038/nature14338). Understanding microbial communities in permafrost will contribute to the knowledge base necessary to understand the rates and forms of permafrost C and N cycling postthaw. Permafrost is also an analog for frozen extraterrestrial environments, and evidence of viable organisms in ancient permafrost is of interest to those searching for potential life on distant worlds. If we can identify strategies microbial communities utilize to survive in permafrost, it may yield insights into how life (if it exists) survives in frozen environments outside of Earth. Our work is significant because it contributes to an understanding of how microbial life adapts and survives in the extreme environmental conditions in permafrost terrains.
Linkages between bacterioplankton community composition, heterotrophic carbon cycling and environmental conditions in a highly dynamic coastal ecosystem
