Athletic Performance and the Oral Contraceptive

2009 ◽  
Vol 4 (2) ◽  
pp. 151-162 ◽  
Author(s):  
Claire Rechichi ◽  
Brian Dawson ◽  
Carmel Goodman
Keyword(s):  
Oral Contraceptive ◽  
Menstrual Cycle ◽  
Athletic Performance ◽  
Female Athletes ◽  
Anaerobic Power ◽  
Anaerobic Capacity ◽  
Reproductive Hormones ◽  
Aerobic Performance ◽  
Cycle Phase ◽  
Physiological Variables

Some reports suggest variation in physiological responses and athletic performance, for female athletes at specific phases of the menstrual cycle. However, inconsistent findings are common due to the inappropriate verification of menstrual cycle phase, small subject numbers, high intra- and interindividual variability in estrogen and progesterone concentration, and the pulsatile secretion of these hormones. Therefore, the oral contraceptive (OC) cycle may provide a more stable environment in which to evaluate the acute effect of reproductive hormones on physiological variables and exercise performance. To date, most of the OC research has compared differences between OC use and nonuse, and few researchers have examined within-cycle effects of the OC. It is also apparent that OC use is becoming far more prevalent in athletes; hence the effect of the different exogenous and endogenous hormonal profiles on athletic performance should be investigated. Research to date identifies potential for variation in aerobic performance, anaerobic capacity, anaerobic power and reactive strength throughout an OC cycle. The purpose of this review is to present and evaluate the current literature on the physiology of exercise and athletic performance during the OC cycle.

scholarly journals Impact of Nutrition-Based Interventions on Athletic Performance during Menstrual Cycle Phases: A Review

2021 ◽  
Vol 18 (12) ◽  
pp. 6294
Author(s):  
Macy M. Helm ◽  
Graham R. McGinnis ◽  
Arpita Basu
Keyword(s):  
Menstrual Cycle ◽  
Athletic Performance ◽  
Literature Search ◽  
Muscle Soreness ◽  
Anaerobic Power ◽  
Sex Hormone ◽  
Steady Increase ◽  
Menstrual Phase ◽  
Strength Performance ◽  
Exercise Induced

Despite the steady increase in female participation in sport over the last two decades, comprehensive research on interventions attenuating the influence of female menstrual physiology on performance remains scarce. Studies involving eumenorrheic women often only test in one menstrual phase to limit sex hormone variance, which may restrict the application of these findings to the rest of the menstrual cycle. The impacts of nutrition-based interventions on athletic performance throughout the menstrual cycle have not been fully elucidated. We addressed this gap by conducting a focused critical review of clinical studies that reported athletic outcomes as well as menstrual status for healthy eumenorrheic female participants. In total, 1443 articles were identified, and 23 articles were included. These articles were published between 2011 and 2021, and were retrieved from Google Scholar, Medline, and PubMed. Our literature search revealed that hydration-, micronutrient-, and phytochemical-based interventions can improve athletic performance (measured by aerobic capacity, anaerobic power, and strength performance) or attenuate exercise-induced damage (measured by dehydration biomarkers, muscle soreness, and bone resorption biomarkers). Most performance trials, however, only assessed these interventions in one menstrual phase, limiting the application throughout the entire menstrual cycle. Improvements in athletic performance through nutrition-based interventions may be contingent upon female sex hormone variation in eumenorrheic women.

scholarly journals Methodological Approach of the Iron and Muscular Damage: Female Metabolism and Menstrual Cycle during Exercise Project (IronFEMME Study)

2021 ◽  
Vol 18 (2) ◽  
pp. 735
Author(s):  
Ana B. Peinado ◽  
Victor M. Alfaro-Magallanes ◽  
Nuria Romero-Parra ◽  
Laura Barba-Moreno ◽  
Beatriz Rael ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Menstrual Cycle ◽  
Resistance Exercise ◽  
Muscle Damage ◽  
Sex Hormones ◽  
Iron Metabolism ◽  
Female Athletes ◽  
Methodological Approach ◽  
Follicular Phase ◽  
Cycle Phase ◽  
Exercise Protocol

Background: The increase in exercise levels in the last few years among professional and recreational female athletes has led to an increased scientific interest about sports health and performance in the female athlete population. The purpose of the IronFEMME Study described in this protocol article is to determine the influence of different hormonal profiles on iron metabolism in response to endurance exercise, and the main markers of muscle damage in response to resistance exercise; both in eumenorrheic, oral contraceptive (OC) users and postmenopausal well-trained women. Methods: This project is an observational controlled randomized counterbalanced study. One hundered and four (104) active and healthy women were selected to participate in the IronFEMME Study, 57 of which were eumenorrheic, 31 OC users and 16 postmenopausal. The project consisted of two sections carried out at the same time: iron metabolism (study I) and muscle damage (study II). For the study I, the exercise protocol consisted of an interval running test (eight bouts of 3 min at 85% of the maximal aerobic speed), whereas the study II protocol was an eccentric-based resistance exercise protocol (10 sets of 10 repetitions of plate-loaded barbell parallel back squats at 60% of their one repetition maximum (1RM) with 2 min of recovery between sets). In both studies, eumenorrheic participants were evaluated at three specific moments of the menstrual cycle: early-follicular phase, late-follicular phase and mid-luteal phase; OC users performed the trial at two moments: withdrawal phase and active pill phase. Lastly, postmenopausal women were only tested once, since their hormonal status does not fluctuate. The three-step method was used to verify the menstrual cycle phase: calendar counting, blood test confirmation, and urine-based ovulation kits. Blood samples were obtained to measure sex hormones, iron metabolism parameters, and muscle damage related markers. Discussion: IronFEMME Study has been designed to increase the knowledge regarding the influence of sex hormones on some aspects of the exercise-related female physiology. Iron metabolism and exercise-induced muscle damage will be studied considering the different reproductive status present throughout well-trained females’ lifespan.

scholarly journals ADMA concentration changes across the menstrual cycle and during oral contraceptive use: the Cardiovascular Risk in Young Finns Study

2010 ◽  
Vol 162 (2) ◽  
pp. 259-265 ◽  
Author(s):  
Pirjo Valtonen ◽  
Kari Punnonen ◽  
Heli Saarelainen ◽  
Nonna Heiskanen ◽  
Olli T Raitakari ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Oral Contraceptive ◽  
Menstrual Cycle ◽  
Brachial Artery ◽  
Luteal Phase ◽  
Follicular Phase ◽  
Cycle Phase ◽  
Adult Women ◽  
Brachial Artery Diameter ◽  
Concentration Changes ◽  
Adma Concentration

ObjectiveThe aim of this study was to evaluate changes in the nitric oxide synthase inhibitor asymmetric dimethylarginine (ADMA) levels during different menstrual cycle phases in young adult women with or without oral contraceptive (OC) use.Design and methodsThe subjects (n=1079) originated from a large population-based, prospective cohort study conducted in Finland. Plasma ADMA, symmetric dimethylarginine (SDMA), l-arginine, C-reactive protein, creatinine, and brachial artery flow-mediated dilatation (FMD) were measured. The use of OCs and menstrual cycle phase were determined from a questionnaire.ResultsIn non-OC users, ADMA (P=0.017), l-arginine (P=0.002), and ADMA/SDMA ratio (P<0.001) were significantly lower in the luteal phase than in the follicular phase of the menstrual cycle. Non-OC users also had significantly higher ADMA and SDMA concentrations (P<0.001) and lower l-arginine concentrations (P<0.001) compared to OC users of estrogen-containing pills. Progestin-only contraceptive pills (POPs) did not lower the ADMA level, but maintained it at the same level as in non-OC users. In OC users, there were no significant differences found in ADMA, FMD, or FMD% across menstrual cycle, whereas brachial artery diameter was significantly more decreased in the luteal phase (P=0.013) than in the follicular phase.ConclusionWe observed that the circulating ADMA concentration varies across the menstrual cycle in young women not using OCs, and women on OCs displayed significantly lower circulating ADMA concentrations than non-OC users, though this was not the case with POP contraception.

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