Estimating Cognitive Reserve in Healthy Adults Using the Cognitive Reserve Scale

The study was designed to investigate whether a level of cognitive reserve (CR) is associated with a level of cognitive competences in adults. Evidence from numerous earlier studies suggests that high CR, defined as previously acquired knowledge and experience, plays a protective role with respect to cognitive capacities in adults and senior citizens. Hence, it was hypothesised that a lower CR would predict lower cognitive capacities. The study involved 120 Polish healthy adults (75 women and 45 men) ranging in age from 40 to 85 years (M = 57.42; SD = 10.48). The applied CR index took into account formal education level, involvement in social, occupational and physical activity, and level of social support. The recorded data also included depression level (Beck Depression Inventory, BDI II) and cardiovascular status (hypertension: yes / no). The subjects’ current cognitive competences were assessed using Montreal Cognitive Assessment test (MoCA), Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) subtests, verbal fluency tests and Dysexecutive Questionnaire, self-report version (DEX-S). Based on the subjects’ scores in cognitive tests, a cluster analysis was performed, and the participants were divided into two groups presenting lower cognitive level (LCL) and higher cognitive level (HCL). The LCL subjects were older than HCL and they had higher level of depression and lower CR. In order to determine whether lower level of CR is related to lower level of cognitive abilities in the adults, logistic regression analysis was carried out, also taking into account age, cardiovascular status and depression level. It was shown that the higher level of CR reduced the risk of cognitive deficits. Older age corresponds to poorer cognitive function. The findings showed no interaction between CR and age. Depression and health status did not predict level of cognitive abilities. The current findings are consistent with results of earlier studies: higher level of CR may be associated with a lower risk of cognitive deficits and age is a CR–independent variable that affects cognitive performance: the risk of cognitive decline increases with age. These findings are discussed with reference to models and CR indices.

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Cognitive reserve may outperform age, mood and psychiatric comorbidities as a predictor of executive functioning in bipolar disorder and healthy adults

Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology ◽

10.1080/13803395.2021.1981251 ◽

2021 ◽

pp. 1-12

Author(s):

Charles Cotrena ◽

Laura Damiani Branco ◽

André Ponsoni ◽

Flávio Milman Shansis ◽

Rochele Paz Fonseca

Keyword(s):

Bipolar Disorder ◽

Executive Functioning ◽

Cognitive Reserve ◽

Healthy Adults ◽

Psychiatric Comorbidities

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Active lifestyle as a reflection of cognitive reserve - the Modified Cognitive Reserve Scale

10.31234/osf.io/g7wmh ◽

2020 ◽

Author(s):

Kristiina Relander ◽

Mäki Kaisa ◽

Soinne Lauri ◽

García-García Juan ◽

Marja Hietanen

Keyword(s):

Cognitive Processing ◽

Internal Consistency ◽

Information Seeking ◽

Cognitive Reserve ◽

Leisure Activities ◽

Functional Decline ◽

Leisure Activity ◽

Healthy Adults ◽

Validity And Reliability ◽

Cross Sectional

Objective: Cognitive reserve (CR) refers to individual differences in cognitive processing that can protect from and compensate for functional decline related to ageing or brain pathology. CR theory postulates that attaining an active and cognitively stimulating lifestyle can accumulate CR. The Cognitive Reserve Scale (CRS) is a questionnaire that measures lifelong attainment in leisure activities. This cross-sectional study aimed to examine the usefulness, validity and reliability of a modified Finnish translation of the CRS, the Modified Cognitive Reserve Scale (mCRS). Method: The mCRS consists of 20 questions concerning studying and information seeking, hobbies and social relationships during three age phases: young adulthood (18-35 years), adulthood (36-64 years) and late adulthood (≥ 65 years). A group of 69 neurologically healthy adults aged 26-78 filled the mCRS and completed a neuropsychological test battery. We examined the internal consistency of the mCRS and associations between the mCRS, demographical variables and cognitive performance.Results: The mCRS was normally distributed and showed satisfactory internal consistency (Cronbach’s alpha 0.81). It was significantly associated with occupation (p=.008) and education (p<.001) but not with age or gender. There were significant associations between the mCRS and verbal reasoning (p=.011), visual reasoning (p=.008), learning (p=.014) and inhibition (p=.002).Conclusions: Our study suggests that the mCRS is a reliable and valid method to assess lifelong leisure activity. The mCRS is related to other factors that enhance CR, occupation and education, and associated with cognitive performance of healthy adults. It provides an easily administrable means to assess lifelong attainment in stimulating leisure activities.

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Effects of Volume or Viscosity Changes on the Pharyngeal Stage of Deglutition in Normal, Healthy Adults

Perspectives on Swallowing and Swallowing Disorders (Dysphagia) ◽

10.1044/sasd10.1.10 ◽

2001 ◽

Vol 10 (1) ◽

pp. 10-13

Author(s):

Adrienne L. Perlman

Keyword(s):

Healthy Adults ◽

Viscosity Changes

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Zinc Status and Serum Testosterone Levels of Healthy Adults

Nutrition ◽

10.1016/s0899-9007(96)00064-0 ◽

1996 ◽

Vol 12 (5) ◽

pp. vi

Author(s):

A Prasad

Keyword(s):

Serum Testosterone ◽

Healthy Adults ◽

Zinc Status ◽

Testosterone Levels

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Estimation of MCA diameter in healthy adults by means of TCCS X. Pan, M. M�ller, K. Schimrigk. Department of Neurology, University Hospital of the Saarland, Homburg/Saar

European Journal of Ultrasound ◽

10.1016/s0929-8266(97)90065-3 ◽

1997 ◽

Vol 5 ◽

pp. 26

Keyword(s):

Healthy Adults ◽

University Hospital

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Renal function in 29 healthy adults before and after nephrectomy

JAMA ◽

10.1001/jama.196.4.322 ◽

1966 ◽

Vol 196 (4) ◽

pp. 322-324 ◽

Cited By ~ 16

Author(s):

A. G. Krohn

Keyword(s):

Renal Function ◽

Healthy Adults ◽

Before And After

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Wechsler Memory Scale, Rivermead Behavioral Memory Test, and Everyday Memory Questionnaire in Healthy Adults and Alzheimer Patients

European Journal of Psychological Assessment ◽

10.1027//1015-5759.18.1.63 ◽

2002 ◽

Vol 18 (1) ◽

pp. 63-77 ◽

Cited By ~ 34

Author(s):

Anastasia Efklides ◽

Efterpi Yiultsi ◽

Theopisti Kangellidou ◽

Fotini Kounti ◽

Fotini Dina ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Spatial Memory ◽

Semantic Memory ◽

Memory Test ◽

Healthy Adults ◽

Gender Effects ◽

Everyday Memory ◽

Wechsler Memory Scale ◽

Everyday Memory Questionnaire ◽

Behavioral Memory ◽

Memory Questionnaire

Summary: The Wechsler Memory Scale (WMS) is a laboratory-based memory test that has been criticized for its lack of ecological validity and for not testing long-term memory. A more recent memory test, which aims at testing everyday memory, is the Rivermead Behavioral Memory Test (RBMT); it tests prospective memory and other forms of memory not tapped by WMS. However, even this test does not capture all aspects of everyday memory problems often reported by adults. These problems are the object of the Everyday Memory Questionnaire (EMQ). This study aimed at identifying the relationships between these three memory tests. The differential effect of Alzheimer's disease (AD) on the above relationships was also studied. The sample consisted of 233 healthy adults (20 to 75+ years of age) and 39 AD patients (50 to 75 years of age). Confirmatory factor analysis revealed the following latent factors: Verbal Memory, Visual Reconstruction, Orientation, Message (action embedded in spatial context), Visual Recognition, Spatial Memory, New Learning/Association Forming, Prospective/Episodic Memory, and Metamemory. These first-order factors were further explained by two second-order factors: Semantic Memory and Coordination of Semantic and Visuo-Spatial Memory. This basic structure was preserved in the sample of AD patients, although AD patients performed less well on the WMS and the RBMT. Some interesting findings regarding semantic memory, face recognition, and metamemory in AD patients are also reported. Age, education, but no gender effects on memory performance were also detected.

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