scholarly journals Moving through the STEM Pipeline: A Systematic Literature Review of the Gender Inequality in Russian Engineering

2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
Ирина Александровна Антощук
Keyword(s):  
Literature Review ◽  
General Education ◽  
Gender Inequality ◽  
Gender Gap ◽  
Professional Education ◽  
The United States ◽  
Negative Consequences ◽  
Gender Imbalance ◽  
Stem Pipeline ◽  
Soviet Russia

Gender inequality in engineering—and other scientific and technical fields—is one of the most persistent and intractable problems in modern culture. This issue has been sufficiently explored in Western Europe and the United States, but much less is known about the situation in Russia, which has a distinct gender history. In the former USSR, women were massively educated in technical sciences and their employment in engineering professions remained unconventionally high in comparison to the West. At the same time, women’s earnings were lower than men’s, and they mostly occupied low- and middle-level jobs, rarely reaching leadership positions. What happened to the gender imbalance after the collapse of the Soviet Union? How has it changed after radical political, economic, and social transformations? The purpose of this review, by analyzing empirical studies of gender inequality in engineering in post-Soviet Russia published after 1991, is to answer these questions. In the last 15 years, there has been a growing interest and works dedicated to this topic, but they remain fragmented and disconnected. Thus, there is a need for a generalized comparison of existing studies and the linking of them to one another. This systematic and problem-oriented literature review seeks to fill this gap. First, it aims to summarize, classify, and critically analyze the existing research results, thereby forming a general picture of gender transformations that have taken place in the engineering profession in Russia. Second, the review identifies key topics, issues, approaches, and reveals contradictions and gaps in the scientific discussion that enables a characterization of gender studies in the engineering field in Russia and formulates an agenda for future research. The review follows a STEM pipeline metaphor, organizing empirical findings in three stages: general education, professional education, and employment. Responding to the need for a comprehensive analytical perspective on gender inequality, the paper develops a multilevel framework, embracing and linking macro-, meso-, and individual-level causal factors of gender imbalance in engineering. The main finding is that gender inequality dramatically increases from an individual’s educational years to employment later in life, resulting in a multidimensional gender gap and multiple disadvantages for women. Path dependency on Soviet times has both positive and negative influences on gender equality, while the transition to a market economy has had mostly negative consequences, driving women out of engineering and leading to its masculinization. Another finding is that existing studies of the gender gap in post-Soviet Russia are not balanced, concentrating mostly on engineering education and initial professional socialization. More studies of the employment and workplace period are necessary, as it remains the most troublesome for women. In addition to women-oriented comparative studies, the role of men’s clubs, and norms of masculinity that support gender inequality need to be examined. More attention to macro-level factors and, most especially, the unique features of post-Soviet context is required. Acknowledgements. The research was funded by the Russian Foundation for Basic Research (RFBR) according to the project № 20-011-00690: “Engineering career in contemporary Russia: professional, organizational, and institutional transformations”.

The Gender Gap in Poverty in Modern Nations: Single Motherhood, the Market, and the State

2002 ◽  
Vol 45 (3) ◽  
pp. 219-242 ◽  
Author(s):  
Karen Christopher ◽  
Paula England ◽  
Timothy M. Smeeding ◽  
Katherin Ross Phillips
Keyword(s):  
The Netherlands ◽  
Labor Markets ◽  
Gender Inequality ◽  
Gender Gap ◽  
Single Mother ◽  
The United States ◽  
Welfare States ◽  
Full Time ◽  
Single Motherhood ◽  
Policy Issues

In this article we examine gender gaps in poverty in the United States and seven other Western nations, asking how single motherhood, market earnings, and welfare states affect gender inequality in poverty. Our analyses speak to the theoretical literature emphasizing the gendered logic and effects of welfare states and labor markets. We find that single-mother families have higher poverty rates than other families in all nations except Sweden, though the degree of their poverty varies. Regarding welfare states, we find that the tax and transfer systems in Sweden and the Netherlands most effectively reduce gender inequality in poverty. Gender inequality in market earnings is worst in the Netherlands and Australia, though among full-time workers, Australia has the lowest gender gap. We conclude by discussing the policy issues raised by our findings.

Part-time by Gender, Not Choice: The Gender Gap in Involuntary Part-time Work

2020 ◽  
pp. 073112142093774
Author(s):  
Corey Pech ◽  
Elizabeth Klainot-Hess ◽  
Davon Norris
Keyword(s):  
United States ◽  
Gender Inequality ◽  
Gender Gap ◽  
Occupational Segregation ◽  
The United States ◽  
Care Work ◽  
Current Population Survey Data ◽  
Time Work ◽  
Part Time ◽  
Part Time Work

Gender inequality in the labor market is a key focus of stratification research. Increasingly, variation in hours worked separates men and women’s employment experiences. Though women often voluntarily work part-time at higher rates than men, involuntary part-time work is both analytically distinct from voluntary part-time work and leaves workers economically precarious. To date, researchers have not systematically investigated gender disparities in involuntary part-time work in the United States. Utilizing Current Population Survey data, we test for a gender gap in involuntary part-time work and evaluate two potential mechanisms: occupational segregation and penalties for care work. We find that women are much more likely than men to work in involuntary part-time positions. Occupational segregation and a care work penalty partially, but not fully, explain this gap. Findings extend existing theories of gender inequality in the workforce and show how an underresearched dimension of job quality creates gender stratification in the United States.

Higher Education Curriculum in the United States

2020 ◽  
Author(s):  
John Rury ◽  
Susan Twombly
Keyword(s):  
General Education ◽  
19Th Century ◽  
Professional Education ◽  
Liberal Arts ◽  
The United States ◽  
College Majors ◽  
Higher Education Curriculum ◽  
Core Curricula ◽  
The 19Th Century ◽  
Instructional Modalities

The American collegiate curriculum has undergone significant change in the past two centuries. From its beginning through much of the 19th century a classical curricular approach prevailed, focusing on ancient languages and the liberal arts, while favoring recitation and debate as instructional modalities. The rise of “land-grant” institutions with a focus on practical instruction in agriculture, engineering, and military sciences in the later 19th century was a harbinger of change. It was followed by the rise of research institutions and comprehensive universities that further emphasized the importance of practical and professional education. The adoption of an elective approach to course-taking and the development of college majors led to debates about core curricula and the need for general education. Following publication of the famous Harvard Red Book in 1948, a broad consensus regarding the need for a liberal arts core emerged in the postwar era and has broadly persisted. Since the 1980s, new debates have emerged about the content of the core and curricular innovations intended to augment student learning. Older content representing a “canon” of received knowledge or wisdom has been challenged by proponents of non-Western, feminist, or oppressed minority perspectives, not always successfully. New instructional modalities, including online and “flipped” courses, have also impacted longstanding curricular practices. New models for assessing and planning collegiate curricula also have emerged. But if a particular theme has predominated in such changes, it is that student and societal demands for more practical and marketable learning outcomes have continued to exert an outsized influence on the ever evolving American collegiate curriculum.

Gender Differences in IT Use in the U.S. and Japan

2008 ◽  
pp. 3174-3202
Author(s):  
Hiroshi Ono ◽  
Madeline Zavodny
Keyword(s):  
United States ◽  
Gender Differences ◽  
Digital Divide ◽  
Gender Inequality ◽  
Gender Gap ◽  
The United States ◽  
It Use ◽  
Demographic Groups ◽  
Actual Usage ◽  
Nuanced Understanding

As information technology (IT) has become more common in everyday use, so too have concerns about the digital divide—unequal access to and use of IT across demographic groups and countries. Understanding the extent and causes of the digital divide is important because IT skills have become increasingly vital to individuals’ economic success. Although IT is widely available in both the United States and Japan, there are notable gender differences in its actual usage between the two countries. In the United States, the gender gap in IT use has narrowed over time, and according to some measures, women are at least as likely as men to use computers. In Japan, however, sizable gender gaps in IT use persist. The contrasting patterns of IT use in the United States and Japan reflect differences in the structure of social organizations and institutions in the two countries. Studying gender differences in IT use across countries thus requires a nuanced understanding of the institutional context under which gender inequality is generated. Using the United States and Japan as contrasting examples, this article examines how gender differences in IT use evolve from gender inequality in broader cultural settings, particularly labor market institutions.

scholarly journals Gender Inequality in Education

2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
Jessica Kristin Nowak ◽  
Keyword(s):  
Gender Inequality ◽  
Gender Gap ◽  
Critical Factor ◽  
Research Problem ◽  
Gender Inequalities ◽  
Access To Education ◽  
Negative Consequences ◽  
Current State ◽  
Inequality In Education ◽  
Education Gap

Education is a critical factor in achieving social equality, including gender equality. For this reason, ensuring equality in the provision of education should not only be a social priority but something natural and obvious. This topic was the subject of considerable debate among scholars for many decades. The beginnings of the struggle for equality of women are based primarily on the battle for access to education, which was essential in this regard. Therefore the gender education gap is decreasing, and nowadays, contemporary rarely persists in educated countries. As a result of the struggle of feminists, today, women around the Globe are more educated than at any point in history. Nevertheless, the phenomena such as “gender inequality” or “gender gap” understood more broadly than education, are still relevant problems. Thereby, men are still more educated and privileged. The problem is not only the degree of accessibility to education but also its content. Yet, current gender inequality is the result of super imposed stereotypical patterns, as well as prejudices and discriminations embodied in the system. This article was written to introduce the issue of gender inequality in education. The given research problem in this study is as follows: where do gender inequalities in education become apparent? The aim of the study is to overview the current state of knowledge. Exploring this topic is crucial because this phenomenon has many negative consequences. This article aims to present the initial characteristics of the problem and draw attention to the issue. The method used is a literature review.

scholarly journals The 3% problem: Why Are There So Few Females in Creative Advertising?

2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
Aleeza Yermus
Keyword(s):  
Literature Review ◽  
Gender Gap ◽  
The United States ◽  
Gender Disparity ◽  
Professional Organizations ◽  
Original Research ◽  
Advertising Industry ◽  
The Media ◽  
State Of Affairs

The purpose of this Masters Research Paper is to examine the role of women in the creative advertising industry. After extensive research into this area of study, it is evident that globally, women make up a very small percentage of the creative roles and executive positions within the advertising industry (Jean Grow & Tao Deng, 2014). Given this state of affairs, consciousness-raising movements like The 3% Conference, for example, (Jesse Thomas, 2012) have emerged in order to raise awareness of this problem and to promote change for women in the advertising industry in the United States and beyond. The literature review that informs the original research conducted in this MRP will analyze the historical trends of women in the creative departments of the global advertising industry in practice and in popular culture and some of the factors that may contribute to this gender disparity – the objective was to examine and gain an understanding of why this gender gap persists. The data was then collected from three different media sources: the television show Mad Men, the documentary film Art & Copy and an online movement called The 3% Conference. My findings were derived from a series of content analyses that enabled me to determine how the media and online professional organizations like The 3% Conference portray women in creative advertising in North America. Lastly, the literature review was compared to the results from the data, to determine whether the media offers a reliable depiction of women in the creative advertising industry.

Gender Differences in IT Use in the U.S. and Japan

2011 ◽  
pp. 564-569
Author(s):  
Hiroshi Ono ◽  
Madeline Zavodny
Keyword(s):  
United States ◽  
Gender Differences ◽  
Digital Divide ◽  
Gender Inequality ◽  
Gender Gap ◽  
The United States ◽  
It Use ◽  
Demographic Groups ◽  
Actual Usage ◽  
Nuanced Understanding

As information technology (IT) has become more common in everyday use, so too have concerns about the digital divide—unequal access to and use of IT across demographic groups and countries. Understanding the extent and causes of the digital divide is important because IT skills have become increasingly vital to individuals’ economic success. Although IT is widely available in both the United States and Japan, there are notable gender differences in its actual usage between the two countries. In the United States, the gender gap in IT use has narrowed over time, and according to some measures, women are at least as likely as men to use computers. In Japan, however, sizable gender gaps in IT use persist. The contrasting patterns of IT use in the United States and Japan reflect differences in the structure of social organizations and institutions in the two countries. Studying gender differences in IT use across countries thus requires a nuanced understanding of the institutional context under which gender inequality is generated. Using the United States and Japan as contrasting examples, this article examines how gender differences in IT use evolve from gender inequality in broader cultural settings, particularly labor market institutions.

scholarly journals Education of the Professional Accountant: An Empirical Study

1985 ◽  
Vol 15 (2) ◽  
pp. 53-73
Author(s):  
M. Rai Kapoor ◽  
K. Hung Chan
Keyword(s):  
United States ◽  
Literature Review ◽  
General Education ◽  
Curriculum Design ◽  
English Language ◽  
The United States ◽  
Educational Needs ◽  
Opinion Survey ◽  
Canadian Universities ◽  
Undergraduate Programs

This paper (1) reviews the literature related to the educational needs of the professional accountant, including several major studies done in the United States, and the accreditation standards of the American Assembly of Collegiate Schools of Business (A.A.C.S.B.) and (2) investigates empirically the perceptions of Canadian accounting educators and practitioners of the educational needs of professional accountants to determine the extent to which these needs are being fulfilled by the current university undergraduate programs in Canada. The literature review confirms the theme that accountants should be broadly educated as well as being technically competent. A calendar review of eleven major Canadian universities provides an indication of the current structure of undergraduate accounting programs in Canada. An opinion survey of educators and practitioners suggests a rather different structure. Among other results, respondents of the survey suggested a higher percentage of general education be included in undergraduate accounting programs especially for certain Ontario and Quebec universities. A greater emphasis should be placed on English language and composition than currently prevails in many major universities. It is hoped that the analysis will prove useful to those involved in curriculum design at the baccalaureate level.

scholarly journals The 3% problem: Why Are There So Few Females in Creative Advertising?

2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
Aleeza Yermus
Keyword(s):  
Literature Review ◽  
Gender Gap ◽  
The United States ◽  
Gender Disparity ◽  
Professional Organizations ◽  
Original Research ◽  
Advertising Industry ◽  
The Media ◽  
State Of Affairs

The purpose of this Masters Research Paper is to examine the role of women in the creative advertising industry. After extensive research into this area of study, it is evident that globally, women make up a very small percentage of the creative roles and executive positions within the advertising industry (Jean Grow & Tao Deng, 2014). Given this state of affairs, consciousness-raising movements like The 3% Conference, for example, (Jesse Thomas, 2012) have emerged in order to raise awareness of this problem and to promote change for women in the advertising industry in the United States and beyond. The literature review that informs the original research conducted in this MRP will analyze the historical trends of women in the creative departments of the global advertising industry in practice and in popular culture and some of the factors that may contribute to this gender disparity – the objective was to examine and gain an understanding of why this gender gap persists. The data was then collected from three different media sources: the television show Mad Men, the documentary film Art & Copy and an online movement called The 3% Conference. My findings were derived from a series of content analyses that enabled me to determine how the media and online professional organizations like The 3% Conference portray women in creative advertising in North America. Lastly, the literature review was compared to the results from the data, to determine whether the media offers a reliable depiction of women in the creative advertising industry.

Telling Cases That Inform an Understanding of Factors Impacting the Development of Inventors From Diverse Backgrounds

2020 ◽  
Vol 21 (2) ◽  
pp. 133-142
Author(s):  
Stephanie Couch ◽  
Audra Skukauskaite ◽  
Leigh B. Estabrooks
Keyword(s):  
High School ◽  
High School Students ◽  
Young Women ◽  
Gender Gap ◽  
Young Men ◽  
The United States ◽  
Foreign Born ◽  
School Students ◽  
School Year ◽  
Diverse Backgrounds

The lack of diversity among patent holders in the United States (1-3) is a topic that is being discussed by federal policymakers. Available data suggests that prolific patent holders and leading technology innovators are 88.3% male and nearly 94.3% Asian, Pacific Islander, or White, and half of the diversity that does exist is among those who are foreign born (3). The data shows that there is a need for greater diversity among patent holders. Few studies, however, are available to guide the work of educators creating learning opportunities to help young people from diverse backgrounds learn to invent. Educators must navigate issues that have complex sociocultural and historical dimensions (4), which shape the ideas of those surrounding them regarding who can invent, with whom, under what conditions, and for what purposes. In this paper, we report the results of an ongoing multimethod study of an invention education pro- gram that has worked with teachers and students in Grades 6 through 12 for the past 16 years. Findings stem from an analysis of end-of-year experience surveys and interview transcripts of six students (three young men and three young women) who participated in high school InvenTeams®. The data were used to investigate three topics: 1) ways high school students who have participated on an InvenTeam conceptualize the term "failure" and what it means to "learn from failure," 2) what supported and constrained the work of the three young women during their InvenTeams experience and the implications for policy makers concerned about the gender gap in patenting, and 3) ways the young men and young women took up (or didn't take up) the identity of "inventor" after working on a team that developed a working prototype of an invention during the previous school year.

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