Use of Spelling-to-Sound Rules in Reading

1976 ◽  
Vol 43 (3_suppl) ◽  
pp. 1135-1146 ◽  
Author(s):  
Catherine G. Wolf ◽  
David Owen Robinson
Keyword(s):  
Fifth Graders ◽  
Second Graders ◽  
Single Letter ◽  
Context Sensitive ◽  
Correspondence Rules ◽  
Context Free ◽  
Novel Words

The present study investigated the use of spelling-to-sound rules by second-graders, fifth-graders, and adults in the reading of novel words. Specifically, the study was concerned with the pronunciation of the vowel of monosyllabic synthetic words. Two classes of rules were studied: context-free rules, in which the pronunciation of a single-letter vowel or vowel digraph is invariant across context, and context-sensitive rules, in which the pronunciation of the vowel is dependent upon subsequent letters of the word. The performance of children and adults on the context-free stimuli indicated that beginning as well as mature readers make use of spelling-to-sound correspondence rules in the pronunciation of novel words and that the tendency to use such rules increases with age. The context-sensitive rules were not generally used; subjects tended to give the most common pronunciation for a vowel regardless of context. However, when a pronunciation other than the most common one was used for a vowel, it tended to be used in the context predicted by the context-sensitive rules. Two models of the use of spelling-to-sound rules in reading were proposed.

Insertion-deletion systems with substitutions I

Computability ◽  
2021 ◽  
pp. 1-27
Author(s):  
Martin Vu ◽  
Henning Fernau
Keyword(s):  
Single Letter ◽  
Context Dependency ◽  
Insertions And Deletions ◽  
Context Sensitive ◽  
Recursively Enumerable ◽  
Substitution Site ◽  
New Type ◽  
Left And Right ◽  
Context Free

In this paper, we discuss the addition of substitutions as a further type of operations to (in particular, context-free) insertion-deletion systems, i.e., in addition to insertions and deletions we allow single letter replacements to occur. We investigate the effect of the addition of substitution rules on the context dependency of such systems, thereby also obtaining new characterizations of and even normal forms for context-sensitive (CS) and recursively enumerable (RE) languages and their phrase-structure grammars. More specifically, we prove that for each RE language, there is a system generating this language that only inserts and deletes strings of length two without considering the context of the insertion or deletion site, but which may change symbols (by a substitution operation) by checking a single symbol to the left of the substitution site. When we allow checking left and right single-letter context in substitutions, even context-free insertions and deletions of single letters suffice to reach computational completeness. When allowing context-free insertions only, checking left and right single-letter context in substitutions gives a new characterization of CS. This clearly shows the power of this new type of rules.

Mediation or Production Deficiency in Disabled Readers?

1980 ◽  
Vol 50 (2) ◽  
pp. 519-530
Author(s):  
Lauren Leslie
Keyword(s):  
Short Term Memory ◽  
Fifth Graders ◽  
Memory Capacity ◽  
Second Graders ◽  
Short Term ◽  
Term Memory ◽  
Memory Processing ◽  
Overt Rehearsal ◽  
Covert Rehearsal ◽  
Disabled Readers

Deficiencies in disabled readers’ short-term memory processing were studied. A deficit in memory capacity versus susceptibility to interference was investigated by examining performance over trials. A mediation versus production deficiency in memory processing was examined by testing the effect of instructions for rehearsal on performance of average and disabled readers in Grades 2 and 5. Contrary to prior research, facilitative effects of rehearsal instructions on second graders’ memory were found only on Trial 1. Fifth graders’ memory was adversely affected by overt rehearsal. Requiring children to rehearse overtly at a set rate may account for the results. A second study examined effects of covert rehearsal on the memory of average and disabled readers in Grade 2 over trials. Facilitative effects of covert rehearsal were shown when data of children who spontaneously rehearsed were removed. A deficiency in production by second graders was supported. Disabled readers who did not rehearse were more susceptible to interference.

Learning Nonregular Languages: A Comparison of Simple Recurrent Networks and LSTM

2002 ◽  
Vol 14 (9) ◽  
pp. 2039-2041 ◽  
Author(s):  
J. Schmidhuber ◽  
F. Gers ◽  
D. Eck
Keyword(s):  
Recent Article ◽  
Short Term Memory ◽  
Recurrent Networks ◽  
Short Term ◽  
Term Memory ◽  
Context Sensitive ◽  
Simple Recurrent Networks ◽  
Long Short Term Memory ◽  
Context Free

In response to Rodriguez's recent article (2001), we compare the performance of simple recurrent nets and long short-term memory recurrent nets on context-free and context-sensitive languages.

Context-sensitivity in conversation: Eye gaze and the German repair initiatorbitte?

1996 ◽  
Vol 25 (4) ◽  
pp. 587-612 ◽  
Author(s):  
Maria M. Egbert
Keyword(s):  
Conversation Analysis ◽  
Eye Gaze ◽  
Linguistic Analysis ◽  
Social Situations ◽  
Telephone Conversation ◽  
Context Sensitive ◽  
Mutual Gaze ◽  
Course Of Action ◽  
Context Free ◽  
Selection Of

ABSTRACTJust as turn-taking has been found to be both context-free and context-sensitive (Sacks, Schegloff & Jefferson 1974), the organization of repair is also shown here to be both context-free and context-sensitive. In a comparison of American and German conversation, repair can be shown to be context-free in that, basically, the same mechanism can be found across these two languages. However, repair is also sensitive to the linguistic inventory of a given language; in German, morphological marking, syntactic constraints, and grammatical congruity across turns are used as interactional resources. In addition, repair is sensitive to certain characteristics of social situations. The selection of a particular repair initiator, Germanbitte?‘pardon?’, indexes that there is no mutual gaze between interlocutors; i.e., there is no common course of action. The selection ofbitte?not only initiates repair; it also spurs establishment of mutual gaze, and thus displays that there is attention to a common focus. (Conversation analysis, context, cross-linguistic analysis, repair, gaze, telephone conversation, co-present interaction, grammar and interaction)

Growth in Baumslag–Solitar groups II: The Bass–Serre tree

2020 ◽  
Vol 30 (02) ◽  
pp. 339-378
Author(s):  
Jared Adams ◽  
Eric M. Freden
Keyword(s):  
Growth Rate ◽  
Minimal Length ◽  
Geometric Object ◽  
Asymptotic Growth ◽  
Growth Series ◽  
Context Sensitive ◽  
Counting Algorithms ◽  
Self Similar ◽  
Context Free ◽  
Asymptotic Growth Rate

Denote the Baumslag–Solitar family of groups as [Formula: see text]). When [Formula: see text] we study the Bass–Serre tree [Formula: see text] for [Formula: see text] as a geometric object. We suggest that the irregularity of [Formula: see text] is the principal obstruction for computing the growth series for the group. In the particular case [Formula: see text] we exhibit a set [Formula: see text] of normal form words having minimal length for [Formula: see text] and use it to derive various counting algorithms. The language [Formula: see text] is context-sensitive but not context-free. The tree [Formula: see text] has a self-similar structure and contains infinitely many cone types. All cones have the same asymptotic growth rate as [Formula: see text] itself. We derive bounds for this growth rate, the lower bound also being a bound on the growth rate of [Formula: see text].

scholarly journals Growth in Baumslag–Solitar groups I: subgroups and rationality

2011 ◽  
Vol 14 ◽  
pp. 34-71 ◽  
Author(s):  
Eric M. Freden ◽  
Teresa Knudson ◽  
Jennifer Schofield
Keyword(s):  
Turing Machine ◽  
Time Complexity ◽  
Machine Construction ◽  
Convolution Product ◽  
Growth Series ◽  
Context Sensitive ◽  
Context Free Language ◽  
Time And Space Complexity ◽  
Context Free ◽  
Free Language

AbstractThe computation of growth series for the higher Baumslag–Solitar groups is an open problem first posed by de la Harpe and Grigorchuk. We study the growth of the horocyclic subgroup as the key to the overall growth of these Baumslag–Solitar groups BS(p,q), where 1<p<q. In fact, the overall growth series can be represented as a modified convolution product with one of the factors being based on the series for the horocyclic subgroup. We exhibit two distinct algorithms that compute the growth of the horocyclic subgroup and discuss the time and space complexity of these algorithms. We show that when p divides q, the horocyclic subgroup has a geodesic combing whose words form a context-free (in fact, one-counter) language. A theorem of Chomsky–Schützenberger allows us to compute the growth series for this subgroup, which is rational. When p does not divide q, we show that no geodesic combing for the horocyclic subgroup forms a context-free language, although there is a context-sensitive geodesic combing. We exhibit a specific linearly bounded Turing machine that accepts this language (with quadratic time complexity) in the case of BS(2,3) and outline the Turing machine construction in the general case.

scholarly journals NICE's use of cost effectiveness as an exemplar of a deliberative process

2006 ◽  
Vol 1 (3) ◽  
pp. 299-318 ◽  
Author(s):  
Anthony J. Culyer
Keyword(s):  
Cost Effectiveness ◽  
Scientific Evidence ◽  
Clinical Excellence ◽  
Deliberative Process ◽  
Context Sensitive ◽  
Scientific Context ◽  
Deliberative Processes ◽  
Assessment Procedures ◽  
Clinical Potential ◽  
Context Free

This paper seeks to test 12 conjectures about the predicted use of deliberative processes by applying them to the technology assessment procedures used by the National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (NICE) in England and Wales. A deliberative process is one that elicits and combines evidence of different kinds and from different sources in order to develop guidance – in the present case, guidance for a health care system. A deliberative process entails the integration of three kinds of evidence: scientific context-free evidence about the general clinical potential of a technology, scientific context-sensitive evidence about particular evidence in realistic scenarios, and colloquial evidence to fit context-free scientific evidence into a context and to supply the best evidence short of scientific evidence to fill in any relevant gaps. It is shown that NICE's appraisals procedures and, in particular, its approach to cost effectiveness, entail both the weighing of each of these types of evidence and can be seen as rational responses to the 12 conjectures.

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