The Implementation of Action Observation Therapy in Virtual Worlds

Repetitive Nature ◽

Full Benefit ◽

Limb Rehabilitation ◽

Multiple Conditions

Upper limb rehabilitation after stroke is vital to the recovery of a patient’s range of motion, dexterity and strength (Jauch et al, 2010, p. 824). Rehabilitative practises are diverse and met with varying levels of success (Brewer et al, 2012, p. 11). This research is concerned with action observation therapy and its potential for neural reorganization through consistent repetition of prescribed physiotherapy exercises. Action observation utilizes mirror neurons to stimulate neural strengthening and recovery (Ertelt et al, 2007, p. 172). The observation of an expert completion of an action by either the patient, a representation of the patient or someone else fires the corresponding mirror neuron (Fogassi et al, 2005, p. 662). Mirror neurons’ ability to be fired under multiple conditions allow a patient who is unable to complete an action, in this case a physiotherapy exercise, to still receive the neural benefit just by observing the action (Ertelt et al, 2007, p. 165). In collaboration with sensory devices in a virtual medium, action observation will be used to create a dynamic and engaging simulation with the intent of providing a physiotherapy experience that progresses in difficulty. Incremental difficulty will ensure patients are being pushed to their limits in a controlled and monitored environment (IJsselsteijn, 2007, p. 27). Neural reorganization requires a large number of repetitions of exercises over extended periods of time creating rehabilitative experiences that have traditionally been tedious and mundane (Merians et al, 2002, p. 898; O’Dell, Lin & Harrison, 2009, p. 55). Gamification of traditional methods can engage the patient over an extended period of time By masking the repetitive nature of the exercises with a fun experience, patients can receive the full benefit of the treatment while performing enjoyable tasks (Muzzaffa et al, 2013, p. 69).

Corticospinal mirror neurons

Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences ◽

10.1098/rstb.2013.0174 ◽

2014 ◽

Vol 369 (1644) ◽

pp. 20130174 ◽

Cited By ~ 40

Author(s):

A. Kraskov ◽

R. Philipp ◽

S. Waldert ◽

G. Vigneswaran ◽

M. M. Quallo ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Mirror Neurons ◽

Primary Motor Cortex ◽

Mirror Neuron System ◽

Action Observation ◽

Premotor Cortex ◽

Mirror Neuron ◽

Considerable Proportion ◽

Emg Activity ◽

Cortex Area ◽

Similar Range

Here, we report the properties of neurons with mirror-like characteristics that were identified as pyramidal tract neurons (PTNs) and recorded in the ventral premotor cortex (area F5) and primary motor cortex (M1) of three macaque monkeys. We analysed the neurons’ discharge while the monkeys performed active grasp of either food or an object, and also while they observed an experimenter carrying out a similar range of grasps. A considerable proportion of tested PTNs showed clear mirror-like properties (52% F5 and 58% M1). Some PTNs exhibited ‘classical’ mirror neuron properties, increasing activity for both execution and observation, while others decreased their discharge during observation (‘suppression mirror-neurons’). These experiments not only demonstrate the existence of PTNs as mirror neurons in M1, but also reveal some interesting differences between M1 and F5 mirror PTNs. Although observation-related changes in the discharge of PTNs must reach the spinal cord and will include some direct projections to motoneurons supplying grasping muscles, there was no EMG activity in these muscles during action observation. We suggest that the mirror neuron system is involved in the withholding of unwanted movement during action observation. Mirror neurons are differentially recruited in the behaviour that switches rapidly between making your own movements and observing those of others.

Action observation for upper limb rehabilitation after stroke

Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews ◽

10.1002/14651858.cd011887 ◽

2015 ◽

Cited By ~ 1

Author(s):

Lorenna RDM Borges ◽

Luciana Protásio Melo ◽

Aline BGS Fernandes ◽

Ricardo O Guerra ◽

Tania F Campos

Keyword(s):

Upper Limb ◽

Action Observation ◽

No evidence for somatosensory attenuation during action observation of self-touch

10.1101/2021.02.08.430193 ◽

2021 ◽

Author(s):

Konstantina Kilteni ◽

Patrick Engeler ◽

Ida Boberg ◽

Linnea Maurex ◽

H. Henrik Ehrsson

Keyword(s):

Visual Information ◽

Mirror Neurons ◽

Mirror Neuron System ◽

Action Observation ◽

Mirror Neuron ◽

Body Part ◽

Motor Command ◽

Voluntary Action ◽

Tactile Stimuli ◽

Motor Representations

AbstractThe discovery of mirror neurons in the macaque brain in the 1990s triggered investigations on putative human mirror neurons and their potential functionality. The leading proposed function has been action understanding: accordingly, we understand the actions of others by ‘simulating’ them in our own motor system through a direct matching of the visual information to our own motor programs. Furthermore, it has been proposed that this simulation involves the prediction of the sensory consequences of the observed action, similar to the prediction of the sensory consequences of our executed actions. Here, we tested this proposal by quantifying somatosensory attenuation behaviorally during action observation. Somatosensory attenuation manifests during voluntary action and refers to the perception of self-generated touches as less intense than identical externally generated touches because the self-generated touches are predicted from the motor command. Therefore, we reasoned that if an observer simulates the observed action and, thus, he/she predicts its somatosensory consequences, then he/she should attenuate tactile stimuli simultaneously delivered to his/her corresponding body part. In three separate experiments, we found a systematic attenuation of touches during executed self-touch actions, but we found no evidence for attenuation when such actions were observed. Failure to observe somatosensory attenuation during observation of self-touch is not compatible with the hypothesis that the putative human mirror neuron system automatically simulates the observed action. In contrast, our findings emphasize a sharp distinction between the motor representations of self and others.

Stroke Rehabilitation

10.26686/wgtn.17059952.v1 ◽

2021 ◽

Author(s):

◽

Patrick Kauraka

Keyword(s):

Upper Limb ◽

Stroke Rehabilitation ◽

Action Observation ◽

Modern Technology ◽

Patient Treatment ◽

Advantages And Disadvantages ◽

Visual Style ◽

Game Designer ◽

Upper limb rehabilitation after a stroke is vital when bringing a range of motion and strength back to a patient. Treatment for upper limb rehabilitation has come in many diverse methods over the years including the use of modern technology through the use of mirror visual feedback (MVF) and action observation therapy; this thesis digital applications for stroke rehabilitation and how varying visual styles can impact the patients experience in the upper limb rehabilitation process. Within the gaming medium the visual style in a game is an aspect of immersion and appeal that is often neglected by the user. The visual style of a game often reflects the tone a game designer has intended to convey while also catering to the target audiences expectations, with realism potentially appealing to a more mature audience while brighter abstract visuals may appeal to a younger demographic. By utilising two different styles of imagery, both realistic and cartoon based visuals, the level of immersion was observed and the user’s reaction to each form of visuals was analysed. The aim of this thesis is to investigate both realistic and stylized visual styles of computer generated imagery, distinguish the advantages and disadvantages for both realism in comparison to cartoon and finally analyse its effectiveness to assist the rehabilitation of upper limb deficiencies. The application being used for this study was made in collaboration with Victoria University Masters student Nicholas Wellwood, providing me the opportunity to focus solely on producing diverse and engaging visual styles to work in unison with a fully developed framework.

Frequency and topography in monkey electroencephalogram during action observation: possible neural correlates of the mirror neuron system

Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences ◽

10.1098/rstb.2013.0415 ◽

2014 ◽

Vol 369 (1644) ◽

pp. 20130415 ◽

Cited By ~ 8

Author(s):

G. Coudé ◽

R. E. Vanderwert ◽

S. Thorpe ◽

F. Festante ◽

M. Bimbi ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Mirror Neurons ◽

Mirror Neuron System ◽

Action Observation ◽

Mirror Neuron ◽

Research Programme ◽

Specific Marker ◽

Frequency Bands ◽

Central Regions ◽

The Face ◽

Specific Frequency

The observation of actions executed by others results in desynchronization of electroencephalogram (EEG) in the alpha and beta frequency bands recorded from the central regions in humans. On the other hand, mirror neurons, which are thought to be responsible for this effect, have been studied only in macaque monkeys, using single-cell recordings. Here, as a first step in a research programme aimed at understanding the parallels between human and monkey mirror neuron systems (MNS), we recorded EEG from the scalp of two monkeys during action observation. The monkeys were trained to fixate on the face of a human agent and subsequently to fixate on a target upon which the agent performed a grasping action. We found that action observation produced desynchronization in the 19–25 Hz band that was strongest over anterior and central electrodes. These results are in line with human data showing that specific frequency bands within the power spectrum of the ongoing EEG may be modulated by observation of actions and therefore might be a specific marker of MNS activity.

Mirror neurons precede non-mirror neurons during action execution

Journal of Neurophysiology ◽

10.1152/jn.00653.2019 ◽

2019 ◽

Vol 122 (6) ◽

pp. 2630-2635

Author(s):

Kevin A. Mazurek ◽

Marc H. Schieber

Keyword(s):

Mirror Neurons ◽

Markov Models ◽

Action Observation ◽

Mirror Neuron ◽

Leading Edge ◽

Population Level ◽

State Transitions ◽

Neuron Activity ◽

Action Execution ◽

Neuron Populations

Mirror neurons are thought to represent an individual’s ability to understand the actions of others by discharging as one individual performs or observes another individual performing an action. Studies typically have focused on mirror neuron activity during action observation, examining activity during action execution primarily to validate mirror neuron involvement in the motor act. As a result, little is known about the precise role of mirror neurons during action execution. In this study, during execution of reach-grasp-manipulate movements, we found activity of mirror neurons generally preceded that of non-mirror neurons. Not only did the onset of task-related modulation occur earlier in mirror neurons, but state transitions detected by hidden Markov models also occurred earlier in mirror neuron populations. Our findings suggest that mirror neurons may be at the forefront of action execution. NEW & NOTEWORTHY Mirror neurons commonly are thought to provide a neural substrate for understanding the actions of others, but mirror neurons also are active during action execution, when additional, non-mirror neurons are active as well. Examining the timing of activity during execution of a naturalistic reach-grasp-manipulate task, we found that mirror neuron activity precedes that of non-mirror neurons at both the unit and the population level. Thus mirror neurons may be at the leading edge of action execution.

Action observation for upper limb rehabilitation after stroke

Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews ◽

10.1002/14651858.cd011887.pub2 ◽

2018 ◽

Cited By ~ 4

Author(s):

Lorenna RDM Borges ◽

Aline BGS Fernandes ◽

Luciana Protásio Melo ◽

Ricardo O Guerra ◽

Tania F Campos

Keyword(s):

Upper Limb ◽

Action Observation ◽

Stroke Rehabilitation

10.26686/wgtn.17059952 ◽

2021 ◽

Author(s):

◽

Patrick Kauraka

Keyword(s):

Upper Limb ◽

Stroke Rehabilitation ◽

Action Observation ◽

Modern Technology ◽

Patient Treatment ◽

Advantages And Disadvantages ◽

Visual Style ◽

Game Designer ◽

Upper limb rehabilitation after a stroke is vital when bringing a range of motion and strength back to a patient. Treatment for upper limb rehabilitation has come in many diverse methods over the years including the use of modern technology through the use of mirror visual feedback (MVF) and action observation therapy; this thesis digital applications for stroke rehabilitation and how varying visual styles can impact the patients experience in the upper limb rehabilitation process. Within the gaming medium the visual style in a game is an aspect of immersion and appeal that is often neglected by the user. The visual style of a game often reflects the tone a game designer has intended to convey while also catering to the target audiences expectations, with realism potentially appealing to a more mature audience while brighter abstract visuals may appeal to a younger demographic. By utilising two different styles of imagery, both realistic and cartoon based visuals, the level of immersion was observed and the user’s reaction to each form of visuals was analysed. The aim of this thesis is to investigate both realistic and stylized visual styles of computer generated imagery, distinguish the advantages and disadvantages for both realism in comparison to cartoon and finally analyse its effectiveness to assist the rehabilitation of upper limb deficiencies. The application being used for this study was made in collaboration with Victoria University Masters student Nicholas Wellwood, providing me the opportunity to focus solely on producing diverse and engaging visual styles to work in unison with a fully developed framework.