Mirror neuron: a beautiful unnecessary concept

Mirror neurons theory, which had been put forward in the eighties based on the results of cognitive research experiments on the macaque monkeys, has prima facie been further validated by the extensive cognitive neurosciences investigations of primates and humans, over the past three decades. The concept was initially prompted by the fact that the brain activity patterns of the subjects were nearly similar, whether the activity was performed or observed by them. And presently, learning of various natures and empathy, and perhaps some aspects of survival, are ascribed to the operations of this class of neurons. Obviously the added complexity on the already complex field of neurosciences cannot be underestimated; and of course there are opponents of the theory, and some profound questions have been raised. Present work, though also in opposition, is based on completely different ground: the fact that the ingenious and grand efforts of the proponents of the theory can be explicated in the realm of the established neural structure of the brain and its computational operations. This possibility is based on the recent discovery of the tactile nature of the vision sensation. Ironically all the results, which form the basis of the mirror neuron concept, also serve to provide the conceptual proof of the new vision theory, which preempts any need for the introduction of the new class of neurons. The vision theory, partially validated through the efforts of the development of the tactile vision substitution systems (TVSS) and ironically also by some to the point mirror neuron experimental works, are sufficient to explain the processes behind empathy, learning and perhaps other mental phenomena; and as such, the need for presumption of additional class of neurons is dispelled. The mental phenomena, which rendered the claim of the mirror neurons, are simply the consequence of subjects beings variably touched by the state of the living environment, through the coherent tactile operation of all senses (four already known as having tactile nature); eyes having the most prominent role: It is the brain’s response (the computations outputs) as motor cortex activity,-- subsequent to the discernment of the streaming massive tactile input data, to appropriately coordinate the observer’s perceived (tactile) engagement, conditioned by the her mental intentional stance sourced in the brain’s protocols (acquired neural patterns)--which is misinterpreted as the evidence for the conceptualization of the mirror neuron.

High-gamma mirror activity patterns in the human brain during reach-to-grasp movement observation, retention, and execution—An MEG study

While the existence of a human mirror neuron system is evident, the involved brain areas and their exact functional roles remain under scientific debate. A number of functionally different mirror neuron types, neurons that selectively respond to specific grasp phases and types for example, have been reported with single cell recordings in monkeys. In humans, spatially limited, intracranially recorded electrophysiological signals in the high-gamma (HG) range have been used to investigate the human mirror system, as they are associated with spiking activity in single neurons. Our goal here is to complement previous intracranial HG studies by using magnetoencephalography to record HG activity simultaneously from the whole head. Participants performed a natural reach-to-grasp movement observation and delayed imitation task with different everyday objects and grasp types. This allowed us to characterize the spatial organization of cortical areas that show HG-activation modulation during movement observation (mirroring), retention (mnemonic mirroring), and execution (motor control). Our results show mirroring related HG modulation patterns over bilateral occipito-parietal as well as sensorimotor areas. In addition, we found mnemonic mirroring related HG modulation over contra-lateral fronto-temporal areas. These results provide a foundation for further human mirror system research as well as possible target areas for brain-computer interface and neurorehabilitation approaches.

The Implementation of Action Observation Therapy in Virtual Worlds

<p>Upper limb rehabilitation after stroke is vital to the recovery of a patient’s range of motion, dexterity and strength (Jauch et al, 2010, p. 824). Rehabilitative practises are diverse and met with varying levels of success (Brewer et al, 2012, p. 11). This research is concerned with action observation therapy and its potential for neural reorganization through consistent repetition of prescribed physiotherapy exercises. Action observation utilizes mirror neurons to stimulate neural strengthening and recovery (Ertelt et al, 2007, p. 172). The observation of an expert completion of an action by either the patient, a representation of the patient or someone else fires the corresponding mirror neuron (Fogassi et al, 2005, p. 662). Mirror neurons’ ability to be fired under multiple conditions allow a patient who is unable to complete an action, in this case a physiotherapy exercise, to still receive the neural benefit just by observing the action (Ertelt et al, 2007, p. 165). In collaboration with sensory devices in a virtual medium, action observation will be used to create a dynamic and engaging simulation with the intent of providing a physiotherapy experience that progresses in difficulty. Incremental difficulty will ensure patients are being pushed to their limits in a controlled and monitored environment (IJsselsteijn, 2007, p. 27). Neural reorganization requires a large number of repetitions of exercises over extended periods of time creating rehabilitative experiences that have traditionally been tedious and mundane (Merians et al, 2002, p. 898; O’Dell, Lin & Harrison, 2009, p. 55). Gamification of traditional methods can engage the patient over an extended period of time By masking the repetitive nature of the exercises with a fun experience, patients can receive the full benefit of the treatment while performing enjoyable tasks (Muzzaffa et al, 2013, p. 69).</p>

The Implementation of Action Observation Therapy in Virtual Worlds

<p>Upper limb rehabilitation after stroke is vital to the recovery of a patient’s range of motion, dexterity and strength (Jauch et al, 2010, p. 824). Rehabilitative practises are diverse and met with varying levels of success (Brewer et al, 2012, p. 11). This research is concerned with action observation therapy and its potential for neural reorganization through consistent repetition of prescribed physiotherapy exercises. Action observation utilizes mirror neurons to stimulate neural strengthening and recovery (Ertelt et al, 2007, p. 172). The observation of an expert completion of an action by either the patient, a representation of the patient or someone else fires the corresponding mirror neuron (Fogassi et al, 2005, p. 662). Mirror neurons’ ability to be fired under multiple conditions allow a patient who is unable to complete an action, in this case a physiotherapy exercise, to still receive the neural benefit just by observing the action (Ertelt et al, 2007, p. 165). In collaboration with sensory devices in a virtual medium, action observation will be used to create a dynamic and engaging simulation with the intent of providing a physiotherapy experience that progresses in difficulty. Incremental difficulty will ensure patients are being pushed to their limits in a controlled and monitored environment (IJsselsteijn, 2007, p. 27). Neural reorganization requires a large number of repetitions of exercises over extended periods of time creating rehabilitative experiences that have traditionally been tedious and mundane (Merians et al, 2002, p. 898; O’Dell, Lin & Harrison, 2009, p. 55). Gamification of traditional methods can engage the patient over an extended period of time By masking the repetitive nature of the exercises with a fun experience, patients can receive the full benefit of the treatment while performing enjoyable tasks (Muzzaffa et al, 2013, p. 69).</p>

Mimetic Self-Reflexivity and Intersubjectivity in Complementary and Alternative Medicine Practices: The Mirror Neuron System in Breast Cancer Survivorship

This study examines complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) providers’ practices in the treatment of their breast cancer survivor (BCS) clients and interprets these practices within the context of existing neuroscientific research on the mirror neuron system (MNS). Purposive and snowball sampling was conducted to recruit CAM providers (N = 15) treating BCSs from integrative medicine centers, educational institutions, private practices, and professional medical associations across the United States. In-depth semi-structured interviewing (N = 252 single-spaced pages) and inductive qualitative content analysis reveal CAM therapeutic practices emphasize a diachronic form of mimetic self-reflexivity and a serendipitous form of mimetic intersubjectivity in BCS pain management to allow the providers to tune-in to their clients’ internal states over time and experience themselves as an embodied subject in an imaginative, shared space. By employing imagination and an intentional vulnerability in their embodied simulation of the others’ internal states, CAM providers co-create experiences of pain while recognizing what about the other remains an unknown. Although MNs provide the mechanism for imitation and simulation underlying empathy through a neuronally wired grasp of the other’s intentionality, the study suggests that examining mimetic self-reflexivity and intersubjectivity in the therapeutic space may allow for a shared simulation of participants’ subjective experiences of pain and potentially inform research on self-recognition and self-other discrimination as an index of self-awareness which implicates the MNS in embodied social cognition in imaginative ways.

The Precuneus Contributes to Embodied Scene Construction for Singing in an Opera

Performing an opera requires singers on stage to process mental imagery and theory of mind tasks in conjunction with singing and action control. Although it is conceivable that the precuneus, as a posterior hub of the default mode network, plays an important role in opera performance, how the precuneus contributes to opera performance has not been elucidated yet. In this study, we aimed to investigate the contribution of the precuneus to singing in an opera. Since the precuneus processes mental scenes, which are multimodal and integrative, we hypothesized that it is involved in opera performance by integrating multimodal information required for performing a character in an opera. We tested this hypothesis by analyzing the functional connectivity of the precuneus during imagined singing and rest. This study included 42 opera singers who underwent functional magnetic resonance imaging when performing “imagined operatic singing” with their eyes closed. During imagined singing, the precuneus showed increased functional connectivity with brain regions related to language, mirror neuron, socio-cognitive/emotional, and reward processing. Our findings suggest that, with the aid of its widespread connectivity, the precuneus and its network allow embodiment and multimodal integration of mental scenes. This information processing is necessary for imagined singing as well as performing an opera. We propose a novel role of the precuneus in opera performance.

Altering Facial Movements Abolishes Neural Mirroring of Facial Expressions

People tend to automatically imitate others’ facial expressions of emotion. That reaction, termed “facial mimicry” has been linked to sensorimotor simulation—a process in which the observer’s brain recreates and mirrors the emotional experience of the other person, potentially enabling empathy and deep, motivated processing of social signals. However, the neural mechanisms that underlie sensorimotor simulation remain unclear. This study tests how interfering with facial mimicry by asking participants to hold a pen in their mouth influences the activity of the human mirror neuron system, indexed by the desynchronization of the EEG mu rhythm. This response arises from sensorimotor brain areas during observed and executed movements and has been linked with empathy. We recorded EEG during passive viewing of dynamic facial expressions of anger, fear, and happiness, as well as nonbiological moving objects. We examine mu desynchronization under conditions of free versus altered facial mimicry and show that desynchronization is present when adult participants can freely move but not when their facial movements are inhibited. Our findings highlight the importance of motor activity and facial expression in emotion communication. They also have important implications for behaviors that involve occupying or hiding the lower part of the face.