Pacing, Exercise Intensity, and Technique by Performance Level in Long-Distance Cross-Country Skiing

The aims of the study were to assess the robustness and non-reactiveness of wearable near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) technology to monitor exercise intensity during a real race scenario, and to compare oxygenation between muscle groups important for cross-country skiing (XCS). In a single-case study, one former elite XCS (age: 39 years, peak oxygen uptake: 65.6 mL/kg/min) was equipped with four NIRS devices, a high-precision global navigation satellite system (GNSS), and a heart rate (HR) monitor during the Vasaloppet long-distance XCS race. All data were normalized to peak values measured during incremental laboratory roller skiing tests two weeks before the race. HR reflected changes in terrain and intensity, but showed a constant decrease of 0.098 beats per minute from start to finish. Triceps brachii (TRI) muscle oxygen saturation (SmO2) showed an interchangeable pattern with HR and seems to be less affected by drift across the competition (0.027% drop per minute). Additionally, TRI and vastus lateralis (VL) SmO2 revealed specific loading and unloading pattern of XCS in uphill and downhill sections, while rectus abdominus (RA) SmO2 (0.111% drop per minute) reflected fatigue patterns occurring during the race. In conclusion, the present preliminary study shows that NIRS provides a robust and non-reactive method to monitor exercise intensity and fatigue mechanisms when applied in an outdoor real race scenario. As local exercise intensity differed between muscle groups and central exercise intensity (i.e., HR) during whole-body endurance exercise such as XCS, NIRS data measured at various major muscle groups may be used for a more detailed analysis of kinetics of muscle activation and compare involvement of upper body and leg muscles. As TRI SmO2 seemed to be unaffected by central fatigue mechanisms, it may provide an alternative method to HR and GNSS data to monitor exercise intensity.

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The Contribution From Cross-Country Skiing and Shooting Variables on Performance-Level and Sex Differences in Biathlon World Cup Individual Races

International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance ◽

10.1123/ijspp.2018-0134 ◽

2019 ◽

Vol 14 (2) ◽

pp. 190-195 ◽

Cited By ~ 5

Author(s):

Harri Luchsinger ◽

Jan Kocbach ◽

Gertjan Ettema ◽

Øyvind Sandbakk

Keyword(s):

Sex Differences ◽

Performance Level ◽

World Cup ◽

Cross Country Skiing ◽

Cross Country

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Exercise Intensity During Cross-Country Skiing Described by Oxygen Demands in Flat and Uphill Terrain

Frontiers in Physiology ◽

10.3389/fphys.2018.00846 ◽

2018 ◽

Vol 9 ◽

Cited By ~ 13

Author(s):

Øyvind Karlsson ◽

Matthias Gilgien ◽

Øyvind N. Gløersen ◽

Bjarne Rud ◽

Thomas Losnegard

Keyword(s):

Exercise Intensity ◽

Cross Country Skiing ◽

Cross Country

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The Training Characteristics of World-Class Male Long-Distance Cross-Country Skiers

Frontiers in Sports and Active Living ◽

10.3389/fspor.2021.641389 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 3 ◽

Author(s):

Per-Øyvind Torvik ◽

Guro Strøm Solli ◽

Øyvind Sandbakk

Keyword(s):

Endurance Training ◽

Training Data ◽

Training Volume ◽

Long Distance ◽

High Intensity Training ◽

Preparation Period ◽

World Class ◽

Cross Country Skiing ◽

Cross Country ◽

Speed Training

Purpose: To investigate the training characteristics of world-class long-distance cross-country skiers.Methods: Twelve world-class male long-distance cross-country skiing specialists reported training from their best season, through a questionnaire and follow-up interviews. Training data were systemized by training form (endurance, strength, and speed), intensity [low- (LIT), moderate- (MIT), and high-intensity training (HIT)], and exercise mode, followed by a division into different periodization phases. Specific sessions utilized in the various periodization phases were also analyzed.Results: The annual training volume was 861 ± 90 h, consisting of 795 ± 88 h (92%) of endurance training, 53 ± 17 h (6%) of strength training, and 13 ± 14 h (2%) of speed training. A pyramidal (asymptotic) endurance training distribution was employed (i.e., 88.7% LIT, 6.4% MIT, and 4.8% HIT). Out of this, 50–60% of the endurance training was performed with double poling (DP), typically in the form of a daily 3- to 5-h session. A relatively evenly distributed week-to-week periodization of training load was commonly used in the general preparation period, whereas skiers varied between high-load training weeks and competition weeks, with half the training volume and a reduced amount of DP during the competition period.Conclusions: To match the specific demands of long-distance cross-country skiing, specialized long-distance skiers perform relatively long but few training sessions and use a pyramidal intensity distribution pattern and a large amount of training spent using the DP technique.

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Peak Age and Relative Performance Progression in International Cross-Country Skiers

International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance ◽

10.1123/ijspp.2021-0065 ◽

2021 ◽

pp. 1-6

Author(s):

Jacob Walther ◽

Roy Mulder ◽

Dionne A. Noordhof ◽

Thomas A. Haugen ◽

Øyvind Sandbakk

Keyword(s):

Sex Difference ◽

Goal Setting ◽

Individual Performance ◽

Performance Level ◽

Relative Performance ◽

Performance Trends ◽

Top Performers ◽

World Class ◽

Cross Country Skiing ◽

Cross Country

Purpose: To quantify peak age and relative performance progression toward peak age in cross-country skiing according to event type, sex, and athlete performance level. Methods: International Ski Federation (FIS) points (performance expressed relative to the best athlete) of athletes born between 1981 and 1991, competing in junior world championships or finishing top 30 in world championships or Olympics, were downloaded from the FIS website. Individual performance trends were derived by fitting a quadratic curve to each athletes FIS point and age data. Results: Peak age was 26.2 (2.3) years in distance and 26.0 (1.7) years in sprint events. The sex difference in peak age in sprint events was ∼0.8 years (small, P = .001), while there was no significant sex difference in peak age in distance events (P = .668). Top performers displayed higher peak ages than other athletes in distance (mean difference, ±95% confidence limits = 1.6 y, ±0.6 y, moderate, P < .001) and sprint events (1.0, ±0.6 y, moderate, P < .001). FIS point improvement over the 5 years preceding peak age did not differ between event types (P = .325), while men improved more than women in both events (8.8, ±5.4%, small, P = .002 and 7.5, ±6.4%, small, P = .002). Performance level had a large effect on improvement in FIS points in both events (P < .001). Conclusion: This study provides novel insights on peak age and relative performance progression among world-class cross-country skiers and can assist practitioners, sport institutions, and federations with goal setting and evaluating strategies for achieving success.

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The Role of Nationality in Ultra-Endurance Sports: The Paradigm of Cross-Country Skiing and Long-Distance Running

International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health ◽

10.3390/ijerph17072543 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 17 (7) ◽

pp. 2543

Author(s):

Beat Knechtle ◽

Thomas Rosemann ◽

Pantelis Theo Nikolaidis

Keyword(s):

Relevant Literature ◽

Marathon Running ◽

Endurance Running ◽

Long Distance ◽

Endurance Sports ◽

Long Distance Running ◽

Cross Country Skiing ◽

Cross Country ◽

Ultra Endurance

Although the variation of performance by nationality in endurance sports such as marathon has been well studied, little information exists so far on the role of nationality on performance in ultra-endurance sports. The aim of the present study was to review the role of nationality on cross-country skiing and ultra-endurance running. Scopus and PubMed were searched using the syntax “nationality AND (ultra-endurance OR ultra-marathon OR cross-country skiing) in 1/4/2020. This search identified 17 articles, whose references were further examined for relevant literature. It was observed that Russian athletes dominated ultra-endurance running and cross-country skiing races. It was shown that these races were in other countries, where it was assumed that only the best Russians competed. Potential explanations could be misuse of performance enhancing substances, historical, climate-geographical and psychophysiological (e.g., combination of genetic and social factors). In summary, recent studies found a dominance of Russian athletes in specific races (i.e., ‘Comrades Marathon’, ‘Vasaloppet’, and ‘Engadin Ski Marathon’) and disciplines (i.e., ultra-marathon running, cross-country skiing) over a period of several decades. Future studies are need to investigate other events and other sport disciplines to confirm this Russian dominance.

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Performance-Determining Variables in Long-Distance Events: Should They Be Determined From a Rested State or After Prolonged Submaximal Exercise?

International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance ◽

10.1123/ijspp.2019-0987 ◽

2020 ◽

pp. 1-8

Author(s):

Dionne A. Noordhof ◽

Sjur J. Øfsteng ◽

Linnea Nirenberg ◽

Daniel Hammarström ◽

Joar Hansen ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Correlation Coefficient ◽

Cycle Length ◽

Prolonged Exercise ◽

Peak Oxygen Uptake ◽

Long Distance ◽

Gross Efficiency ◽

Double Poling ◽

Cross Country Skiing ◽

Cross Country ◽

Peak Speed

Performance-determining variables are usually measured from a rested state and not after prolonged exercise, specific to when athletes compete for the win in long-distance events. Purpose: (1) To compare cross-country skiing double-poling (DP) performance and the associated physiological and biomechanical performance-determining variables between a rested state and after prolonged exercise and (2) to investigate whether the relationship between the main performance-determining variables and DP performance is different after prolonged submaximal DP than when tested from a rested state. Methods: Male cross-country skiers (N = 26) performed a blood lactate profile test and an incremental test to exhaustion from a rested state on day 1 (D1; all using DP) and after 90-minute submaximal DP on day 2 (D2). Results: The DP performance decreased following prolonged submaximal DP (D1: peak speed = 15.33–20.75 km·h−1, median = 18.1 km·h−1; D2: peak speed = 13.68–19.77 km·h−1, median = 17.8 km·h−1; z = −3.96, P < .001, effect size r = −.77), which coincided with a reduced submaximal gross efficiency and submaximal and peak cycle length, with no significant change in peak oxygen uptake (P = .26, r = .23). The correlation coefficient between D1 cycle length at 12 km·h−1 and D2 performance is significantly smaller than the correlation coefficient between D2 cycle length at 12 km·h−1 and D2 performance (P = .033), with the same result being found for peak cycle length (P < .001). Conclusions: The reduced DP performance after prolonged submaximal DP coincided with a reduced submaximal gross efficiency and shorter peak cycle length. The results indicate that performance-determining variables could be determined after prolonged exercise to gain more valid insight into long-distance DP performance.

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