The Effects of Sodium Phosphate Supplementation on the Cardiorespiratory System and Gross Efficiency during Exercise under Hypoxia in Male Cyclists: A Randomized, Placebo-Controlled, Cross-Over Study

The main aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of six days of tri-sodium phosphate (SP) supplementation on the cardiorespiratory system and gross efficiency (GE) during exercise under hypoxia in cyclists. Twenty trained male cyclists received SP (50 mg·kg−1 of fat-free mass/day) or placebo for six days in a randomized, cross-over study, with a three-week washout period between supplementation phases. Before and after each supplementation phase, the subjects performed an incremental exercise test to exhaustion under normobaric hypoxia (FiO2 = 16%, ~2500 m). It was observed that short-term SP supplementation led to a decrease in heart rate, an increase in stroke volume, and an improvement in oxygen pulse (VO2/HR) during low and moderate-intensity exercise under hypoxia. These changes were accompanied by an increase in the serum inorganic phosphate level by 8.7% (p < 0.05). No significant changes were observed in serum calcium levels. GE at a given workload did not change significantly after SP supplementation. These results indicated that SP promotes improvements in the efficiency of the cardiorespiratory system during exercise in a hypoxic environment. Thus, SP supplementation may be beneficial for endurance exercise in hypoxia.

Nose-down saddle tilt improves gross efficiency during seated uphill cycling

Riding uphill presents a challenge to competitive and recreational cyclists. Based on only limited evidence, some scientists have reported that tilting the saddle nose down improves uphill-cycling efficiency by as much as 6%. Purpose: Here, we investigated if simply tilting the saddle nose down increases efficiency during uphill cycling, which would presumably improve performance. Methods: Nineteen healthy, recreational cyclists performed multiple 5-min trials of seated cycling at ~3 W kg–1 on a large, custom-built treadmill inclined to 8° under two saddle-tilt angle conditions: parallel to the riding surface and 8° nose down. We measured subjects’ rates of oxygen consumption and carbon dioxide production using an expired-gas analysis system and then calculated their average metabolic power during the last two min of each 5-min trial. Results: We found that, compared to the parallel-saddle condition, tilting the saddle nose down by 8° improved gross efficiency from 0.205 to 0.208 –– an average increase of 1.4 ± 0.2%, t = 5.9, p &lt; .001, CI95% [0.9, 1.9], ES = 1.3. Conclusion: Our findings are relevant to competitive and recreational cyclists and present an opportunity for innovating new devices and saddle designs that enhance uphill cycling efficiency. The effect of saddle tilt on other slopes and the mechanism behind the efficiency improvement remain to be investigated.

Power Output and Efficiency During Supine, Recumbent, and Upright Cycle Ergometry

Recumbent and supine cycling are common exercise modes in rehabilitation and clinical settings but the influence of postures on work efficiency is unclear. Therefore, the aim of this study was to compare metabolic and ventilatory efficiency during upright, recumbent, and supine postures. Potential differences should be assessed for suitable diagnostics and for prescriptions of training that probably is performed in alternative postures. Eighteen healthy subjects (age: 47.2 ± 18.4 years; 10 female, 8 male) participated in the study and each completed three incremental cycle ergometer tests until exhaustion in upright, recumbent (40°), and supine positions. Gas exchange, heart rate (HR), and lactate concentrations were analyzed and efficiency was calculated subsequently. Testing sessions were performed in random order within a 2-week period. Upright cycling resulted in significantly higher peak values [power output, oxygen uptake (Vo2), HR] as well as performance at lactate and ventilatory thresholds in comparison to recumbent or supine positions. Vco2/Vo2 slope and ventilatory efficiency (VE/Vco2 slope) were not affected by posture. Aerobic work efficiency (Vo2/P slope) and gross efficiency (GE) differed significantly between postures. Hereby, GE was lowest in supine cycling, particularly obvious in a mainly aerobic condition at 70 Watt [Median 11.6 (IQR 10.9–13.3) vs. recumbent: 15.9 (IQR 15.6–18.3) and upright: 17.4 (IQR 15.1–18.3)]. Peak power as well as GE and work efficiency values are influenced by cycling position, reinforcing the importance of adjusting test results for training prescriptions. Surprisingly, ventilatory efficiency was not affected in this study and therefore does not seem to falsify test results for pulmonary diagnostics.

Physiological and Biomechanical Determinants of Sprint Ability Following Variable Intensity Exercise When Roller Ski Skating

The most common race format in cross-country (XC) skiing is the mass-start event, which is under-explored in the scientific literature. To explore factors important for XC skiing mass-starts, the main purpose of this study was to investigate physiological and biomechanical determinants of sprint ability following variable intensity exercise when roller ski skating. Thirteen elite male XC skiers performed a simulated mass-start competition while roller ski skating on a treadmill. The protocol consisted of an initial 21-min bout with a varying track profile, designed as a competition track with preset inclines and speeds, directly followed by an all-out sprint (AOS) with gradually increased speed to rank their performance. The initial part was projected to simulate the “stay-in-the-group” condition during a mass-start, while the AOS was designed to assess the residual physiological capacities required to perform well during the final part of a mass-start race. Cardiorespiratory variables, kinematics and pole forces were measured continuously, and the cycles were automatically detected and classified into skating sub-techniques through a machine learning model. Better performance ranking was associated with higher VO2Max (r = 0.68) and gross efficiency (r = 0.70) measured on separate days, as well as the ability to ski on a lower relative intensity [i.e., %HRMax (r = 0.87), %VO2Max (r = 0.89), and rating of perceived exertion (r = 0.73)] during the initial 21-min of the simulated mass-start (all p-values &lt; 0.05). Accordingly, the ability to increase HR (r = 0.76) and VO2 (r = 0.72), beyond the corresponding values achieved during the initial 21-min, in the AOS correlated positively with performance (both p &lt; 0.05). In addition, greater utilization of the G3 sub-technique in the steepest uphill (r = 0.69, p &lt; 0.05), as well as a trend for longer cycle lengths (CLs) during the AOS (r = 0.52, p = 0.07), were associated with performance. In conclusion, VO2Max and gross efficiency were the most significant performance-determining variables of simulated mass-start performance, enabling lower relative intensity and less accumulation of fatigue before entering the final AOS. Subsequently, better performance ranking was associated with more utilization of the demanding G3 sub-technique in the steepest uphill, and physiological reserves allowing better-performing skiers to utilize a larger portion of their aerobic potential and achieve longer CLs and higher speed during the AOS.

Noncircular Chainrings Do Not Influence Physiological Responses During Submaximal Cycling

Pedal speed and mechanical power output account for 99% of metabolic cost during submaximal cycling. Noncircular chainrings can alter instantaneous crank angular velocity and thereby pedal speed. Reducing pedal speed during the portion of the cycle in which most power is produced could reduce metabolic cost and increase metabolic efficiency. Purpose: To determine the separate contributions of pedal speed and chainring shape/eccentricity to the metabolic cost of producing power and evaluate joint-specific kinematics and kinetics during submaximal cycling across 3 chainring eccentricities (CON = 1.0; LOW = 1.13; HIGH = 1.24). Methods: Eight cyclists performed submaximal cycling at power outputs eliciting 30%, 60%, and 90% of their individual lactate threshold at pedaling rates of 80 rpm under each chainring condition (CON80rpm; LOW80rpm; HIGH80rpm) and at pedaling rates for the CON chainring chosen to match pedal speeds of the noncircular chainrings (CON78rpm to LOW80rpm; CON75rpm to HIGH80rpm). Physiological measures, metabolic cost, and gross efficiency were determined by indirect calorimetry. Pedal and joint-specific powers were determined using pedal forces and limb kinematics. Results: Physiological and metabolic measures were not influenced by eccentricity and pedal speed (all Ps > .05). Angular velocities produced during knee and hip extension were lower with the HIGH80rpm condition compared with the CON80rpm condition (all Ps < .05), while angular velocity produced during ankle plantar flexion remained unchanged. Conclusions: Despite the noncircular chainrings imposing their eccentricity on joint angular kinematics, they did not reduce metabolic cost or increase gross efficiency. Our results suggest that noncircular chainrings neither improve nor compromise submaximal cycling performance in trained cyclists.

Energy and economic analysis of an ORC combined to steam boiler

Energy and economic performance of an organic Rankine cycle (ORC) system designed to recycle waste heat of a steam boiler was analysed. Optimisation of ORC system was performed by using the Cycle-Tempo software and the REFPROP program. The selected working fluid was R245fa. For the exhaust gases temperature of 163°C and mass flow rate of 11.83 kg/s, cooling water temperature of 20°C resulted a gross efficiency of 21.02% and a cost of 2987 €/kW, an electricity levelised cost of 102 €/kWh and a payback period of 5.5 years.

Metabolic Power and Efficiency for an Amputee Cyclist: Implications for Cycling Technique

Cycling technique is steeped in cultural lore. One deeply held belief is that "pulling-up" to lift the leg (increased muscular leg flexion) will optimize technique and improve efficiency. In contrast, scientific evidence suggests that when cyclists are instructed to pull-up efficiency decreases. However, such interventions may not have allowed sufficient time for cyclists to adapt and refine their technique. This case study documented how a cyclist with a complete unilateral limb amputation consumed metabolic power to produce mechanical power during single-leg cycling. The cyclist was a 4-time U.S. National Paralympic Champion who performed single-leg cycling for 7yrs and thus was fully adapted to pull-up. We hypothesized that a counterweight system, which reduced the requirement to pull-up, would decrease metabolic power and increase efficiency for this cyclist. The cyclist performed submaximal cycling (100, 135, 170, 205W, 80rpm, 5min) with and without a counterweight (10kg) on the unused crank. Expired gasses were measured, and metabolic power and gross efficiency were calculated. Metabolic power decreased on average by 87±7W (p<0.001) and gross efficiency increased from 16.3±1.9 to 18.0±1.8% (p<0.001) when cycling with the counterweight. During counterweighted single-leg cycling, the metabolic power of unloaded cycling decreased (317 vs. 238W) and delta efficiency was similar (25.2 vs. 25.5%). Results demonstrated that significant metabolic power was associated with pulling-up to produce muscular leg flexion power even in a cyclist who pulled-up substantially during cycling. Our findings confirm observations from previous studies that altered pedaling technique acutely and indicate that pulling-up during cycling is less efficient.

Variations in exercise ventilation in hypoxia will affect oxygen uptake

Reports of VO2 response differences between normoxia and hypoxia during incremental exercise do not agree. In this study VO2 and VE were obtained from 15-s averages at identical work rates during continuous incremental cycle exercise in 8 subjects under ambient pressure (633 mmHg ≈1,600 m) and during duplicate tests in acute hypobaric hypoxia (455 mmHg ≈4,350 m), ranging from 49 to 100% of VO2 peak in hypoxia and 42–87% of VO2 peak in normoxia. The average VO2 was 96 mL/min (619 mL) lower at 455 mmHg (n.s. P = 0.15) during ramp exercises. Individual response points were better described by polynomial than linear equations (mL/min/W). The VE was greater in hypoxia, with marked individual variation in the differences which correlated significantly and directly with the VO2 difference between 455 mmHg and 633 mmHg (P = 0.002), likely related to work of breathing (Wb). The greater VE at 455 mmHg resulted from a greater breathing frequency. When a subject's hypoxic ventilatory response is high, the extra work of breathing reduces mechanical efficiency (E). Mean ∆E calculated from individual linear slopes was 27.7 and 30.3% at 633 and 455 mmHg, respectively (n.s.). Gross efficiency (GE) calculated from mean VO2 and work rate and correcting for Wb from a VE–VO2 relationship reported previously, gave corresponding values of 20.6 and 21.8 (P = 0.05). Individual variation in VE among individuals overshadows average trends, as also apparent from other reports comparing hypoxia and normoxia during progressive exercise and must be considered in such studies.

The Effect of Different Cadence on Paddling Gross Efficiency and Economy in Stand-Up Paddle Boarding

Background: Due to the importance of energy efficiency and economy in endurance performance, it is important to know the influence of different paddling cadences on these variables in the stand-up paddleboarding (SUP). The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of paddling at different cadences on the energy efficiency, economy, and physiological variables of international SUP race competitors. Methods: Ten male paddlers (age 28.8 ± 11.0 years; height 175.4 ± 5.1 m; body mass 74.2 ± 9.4 kg) participating in international tests carried out two test sessions. In the first one, an incremental exercise test was conducted to assess maximal oxygen uptake and peak power output (PPO). On the second day, they underwent 3 trials of 8 min each at 75% of PPO reached in the first test session. Three cadences were carried out in different trials randomly assigned between 45–55 and 65 strokes-min−1 (spm). Heart rate (HR), blood lactate, perceived sense of exertion (RPE), gross efficiency, economy, and oxygen uptake (VO2) were measured in the middle (4-min) and the end (8-min) of each trial. Results: Economy (45.3 ± 5.7 KJ·l−1 at 45 spm vs. 38.1 ± 5.3 KJ·l−1 at 65 spm; p = 0.010) and gross efficiency (13.4 ± 2.3% at 45 spm vs. 11.0 ± 1.6% at 65 spm; p = 0.012) was higher during de 45 spm condition than 65 spm in the 8-min. Respiratory exchange ratio (RER) presented a lower value at 4-min than at 8-min in 55 spm (4-min, 0.950 ± 0.065 vs. 8-min, 0.964 ± 0.053) and 65 spm cadences (4-min, 0.951 ± 0.030 vs. 8-min, 0.992 ± 0.047; p < 0.05). VO2, HR, lactate, and RPE were lower (p < 0.05) at 45 spm (VO2, 34.4 ± 6.0 mL·kg−1·min−1; HR, 161.2 ± 16.4 beats·min−1; lactate, 3.5 ± 1.0 mmol·l−1; RPE, 6.0 ± 2.1) than at 55 spm (VO2, 38.6 ± 5.2 mL·kg−1·min−1; HR, 168.1 ± 15.1 beats·min−1; lactate, 4.2 ± 1.2 mmol·l−1; RPE, 6.9 ± 1.4) and 65 spm (VO2, 38.7 ± 5.9 mL·kg−1·min−1; HR, 170.7 ± 13.0 beats·min−1; 5.3 ± 1.8 mmol·l−1; RPE, 7.6 ± 1.4) at 8-min. Moreover, lactate and RPE at 65 spm was greater than 55 spm (p < 0.05) at 8-min. Conclusion: International male SUP paddlers were most efficient and economical when paddling at 45 spm vs. 55 or 65 spm, confirmed by lower RPE values, which may likely translate to faster paddling speed and greater endurance.