Changes in Maximal Strength and Home Run Performance in NCAA Division I Baseball Players Across 3 Competitive Seasons: A Descriptive Study

The purpose of this longitudinal, descriptive study was to observe changes in maximal strength measured via isometric clean grip mid-thigh pull and home runs (total and home runs per game) across three years of training and three competitive seasons for four National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division 1 baseball players. A one-way repeated measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed, revealing significant univariate effects of time for peak force (PF) (p = 0.003) and peak force allometrically scaled (PFa) (p = 0.002). Increases in PF were noted from season 1 to season 2 (p = 0.031) and season 3 (p = 0.004), but season 2 was not significantly different than season 3 (p = 0.232). Additionally, increases in PFa were noted from season 1 to season 2 (p = 0.010) and season 3 (p < 0.001), but season 2 was not significantly different than season 3 (p = 0.052). Home runs per game rose from the 2009 (0.32) to 2010 season (1.35) and dropped during the 2011 season (1.07). A unique aspect of the study involves 2010 being the season in which ball-bat coefficient of restitution (BBCOR) bats were introduced to the NCAA competition.

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Decreased Shoulder and Elbow Joint Loads During the Changeup Compared With the Fastball and Curveball in NCAA Division I Collegiate Softball Pitchers

Orthopaedic Journal of Sports Medicine ◽

10.1177/23259671211026625 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 9 (9) ◽

pp. 232596712110266

Author(s):

Gretchen D. Oliver ◽

Jessica L. Downs Talmage ◽

Kenzie B. Friesen ◽

Michael G. Saper ◽

Jeffrey R. Dugas

Keyword(s):

Upper Extremity ◽

Ncaa Division I ◽

Repeated Measures ◽

Sports Medicine ◽

Injury Risk ◽

National Collegiate Athletic Association ◽

Division I ◽

Future Research ◽

Study Results ◽

Significant Difference

Background: Baseball leagues have implemented pitch count and pitch type restrictions based on biomechanical concepts associated with pitch type. Softball has not yet adopted these practices, although softball pitchers continue to pitch at a high volume and learn multiple pitches at a young age. Purpose: To examine shoulder and elbow kinetics between the fastball, curveball, and changeup, as well as to provide descriptive upper extremity pain data in National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) softball pitchers. Study Design: Descriptive laboratory study. Methods: Study participants consisted of 27 female NCAA Division I softball pitchers (age, 20.2 ± 1.9 years; height, 175.7 ± 5.7 cm; weight, 83.6 ± 12.7 kg). The participants pitched 3 balls of each pitch type, and kinetic data were recorded. A one-way within-participants repeated-measures multivariate analysis of variance was used to determine significant differences in kinetics and pitch speed between pitch types. Results: Results revealed a statistically significant main effect for pitch type (Wilks λ = .087; F = 36.523; P < .001). Post hoc testing showed that the changeup produced less anterior elbow force compared with the fastball ( P < .001) and the curveball ( P = .012). In addition, the changeup produced less shoulder distraction force compared with the fastball ( P < .001) and the curveball ( P = .001). Additionally, there was a significant difference in pitch speed between all 3 pitch types ( P = .006). The curveball revealed no statistically significant kinetic differences compared with the fastball. Conclusion: The fastball and curveball placed similar stress on the upper extremity in collegiate softball pitchers. However, in comparison with the changeup, the fastball and curveball placed increased stress on the upper extremity. More research is needed to fully explain the differences seen between pitch type and injury risk. Clinical Relevance: Sports medicine professionals, coaches, and athletes should use the current study results to note these differences in shoulder distraction and elbow anterior forces between softball pitch types. The study results can be used as a reference and basis for future research investigating kinetic differences across varying pitch types.

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Incidence Of Elbow Ulnar Collateral Ligament Surgery In Collegiate Baseball Players

Orthopaedic Journal of Sports Medicine ◽

10.1177/2325967119s00310 ◽

2019 ◽

Vol 7 (7_suppl5) ◽

pp. 2325967119S0031

Author(s):

Marcus A. Rothermich ◽

Stan A. Conte ◽

Glenn S. Fleisig ◽

E. Lyle Cain ◽

Jeffrey R. Dugas

Keyword(s):

Ncaa Division I ◽

National Collegiate Athletic Association ◽

Ulnar Collateral Ligament ◽

Progressive Increase ◽

Division I ◽

Collateral Ligament ◽

Baseball Players ◽

Collegiate Baseball ◽

Internal Brace ◽

Surgical Injuries

Objectives: Recent studies in the literature have highlighted the progressive increase in the incidence of ulnar collateral ligament (UCL) injuries to the elbow in baseball players of all levels. However, knowledge of the incidence and other epidemiological factors regarding UCL injuries, specifically in college baseball players, is currently lacking. In 2016, we launched a prospective, multi-year study to evaluate the incidence of UCL injuries requiring surgery in National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I baseball programs. Methods: We invited 157 Division I collegiate baseball programs after the 2017 season, and 155 agreed to participate in the study. After the 2018 season, all 297 programs were invited and 294 participated. At the conclusion of the 2017 and 2018 collegiate baseball seasons, the athletic trainer for each program entered anonymous, detailed information on injured players through an electronic survey into a secured database. Results: We obtained a 100% completion rate in the first two years of this ongoing study (155/155 respondents in the first year, 294/294 in the second year). Of the 5,364 collegiate baseball players tracked in Year 1 (2016-2017), 134 underwent surgery for an injured UCL, resulting in a team surgery rate of 0.86 per program. In Year 2 (2017-2018), there were 230 surgeries reported from 10,019 players tracked, resulting in a team surgery rate of 0.78 per program. A majority of schools experienced at least one surgery during both years (56.8% in Year 1, 50.7% in Year 2). Pitchers experience a vast majority of the surgical injuries (85.8% in Year 1, 84.3% in Year 2). Underclassmen made up 65.7% of surgeries in Year 1, which fell slightly to 56.1% in Year 2. Nearly half of the surgeries occurred during an ongoing baseball season in Year 1 (48.5%), but this fell in Year 2 to 41.3%. In both years, a non-significant majority of players were from warm-weather states (65.4% in Year 1, 52.9% in Year 2). Revision surgical rates remained nearly constant with 3.0% revision surgeries in Year 1 compared with 2.6% revisions in Year 2. Interestingly, the percentage of UCL repairs with internal brace augmentation rose from 9.5% in Year 1 to 19.9% of all procedures in Year 2. Conclusion: The incidence of UCL surgeries in NCAA Division I collegiate baseball players represents substantial morbidity to this young athletic population. This multi-year prospective study has been established to assess the incidence of surgical UCL injuries in collegiate baseball. Also, importantly, with multiple years of data we will identify trends in the demographics of players undergoing surgery and in surgical details over time. Awareness of these factors should be considered in injury prevention programs in the future.

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Incidence of Elbow Ulnar Collateral Ligament Surgery in Collegiate Baseball Players

Orthopaedic Journal of Sports Medicine ◽

10.1177/2325967118764657 ◽

2018 ◽

Vol 6 (4) ◽

pp. 232596711876465 ◽

Cited By ~ 15

Author(s):

Marcus A. Rothermich ◽

Stan A. Conte ◽

Kyle T. Aune ◽

Glenn S. Fleisig ◽

E. Lyle Cain ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Ncaa Division I ◽

National Collegiate Athletic Association ◽

Ulnar Collateral Ligament ◽

Initial Study ◽

Division I ◽

Cold Weather ◽

Collateral Ligament ◽

Baseball Players ◽

Electronic Survey ◽

Collegiate Baseball

Background: Recent reports have highlighted the progressive increase in the incidence of ulnar collateral ligament (UCL) injuries to the elbow in baseball players of all levels. However, knowledge of the incidence and other epidemiological factors regarding UCL injuries, specifically in college baseball players, is currently lacking. Purpose: To evaluate, over a period of 1 year, the incidence of UCL injuries requiring surgery in National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I baseball programs. Study Design: Descriptive epidemiology study. Methods: A total of 155 Division I collegiate baseball programs agreed to participate in the study. Demographics (position, year, background [location of high school]) for all players on these rosters were obtained from public websites. At the conclusion of the 2017 collegiate baseball season, the athletic trainer for each program entered anonymous, detailed information on injured players through an electronic survey into a secured database. Results: All 155 teams enrolled in the study completed the electronic survey. Of the 5295 collegiate baseball players on these rosters, 134 underwent surgery for an injured UCL (2.5% of all eligible athletes), resulting in a team surgery rate of 0.86 per program for 1 year. These 134 players came from 88 teams, thus 56.8% of the study teams underwent at least 1 surgery during the year. The surgery rate was 2.5 per 100 player-seasons for all players and was significantly higher among pitchers (4.4/100 player-seasons) than nonpitchers (0.7/100 player-seasons). The surgery rate was also significantly higher in underclassmen (3.1/100 player-seasons among freshmen and sophomores) than upperclassmen (1.9/100 player-seasons among juniors and seniors) (incidence rate ratio, 1.7; 95% CI, 1.1-2.4). Players from traditionally warm-weather states did not undergo UCL surgery at a significantly different rate from players from traditionally cold-weather states (2.7/100 player-seasons vs 2.1/100 player-seasons, respectively). Nearly half of surgeries (48.5%) were performed during the baseball season. Conclusion: The incidence of UCL surgeries in NCAA Division I collegiate baseball players represents substantial morbidity to this young athletic population. Risk factors for injuries requiring surgery include being a pitcher and an underclassman. Awareness of these factors should be considered in injury prevention programs. Furthermore, this initial study can serve as a foundation for tracking these surgical injuries in future years and then identifying trends over time.

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Effect of Achilles Tendon Repair on Performance Outcomes After Return to Play in National Collegiate Athletic Association Division I Basketball Athletes

Orthopaedic Journal of Sports Medicine ◽

10.1177/23259671211015239 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 9 (6) ◽

pp. 232596712110152

Author(s):

Rafael Sanchez ◽

Blake H. Hodgens ◽

Joseph S. Geller ◽

Samuel Huntley ◽

Jonathan Kaplan ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Ncaa Division I ◽

National Collegiate Athletic Association ◽

Performance Metrics ◽

Female Athletes ◽

Surgical Repair ◽

National Basketball Association ◽

Division I ◽

Return To Play ◽

Basketball Players ◽

Significant Drop

Background: Achilles tendon (AT) ruptures are devastating injuries that are highly prevalent among athletes. Despite our understanding of the effect of AT rupture and in particular its relationship to basketball, no study has examined the effects of AT rupture and repair on performance metrics in collegiate basketball players. Purpose: To evaluate the effect of AT rupture and subsequent surgical repair on performance metrics in National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I basketball players who return to play after injury. Study Design: Descriptive epidemiology study. Methods: NCAA Division I basketball players who sustained an AT rupture and underwent subsequent surgical repair between 2000 and 2019 were identified by systematically evaluating individual injury reports from databases comprising NCAA career statistics and individual school statistics; 65 male and 41 female players were identified. Athletes were included if they participated in at least one-half of the games of 1 collegiate season before tearing the AT and at least 1 season after operative repair. A total of 50 male and 30 female athletes were included. Each injured athlete was matched to a healthy control by conference, position, starter status at time of injury, class year, and number of games played. Matched controls were healthy players and experienced no significant injuries during their NCAA careers. Results: After AT repair, male athletes had significantly more minutes per game, points per game, and compared with before injury. Total blocks significantly decreased after injury. Female athletes scored significantly more points per game but demonstrated a significantly lower 3-point shooting percentage after return to play. Despite undergoing AT rupture and repair, 14% of male players played in the National Basketball Association, and 20% of injured female athletes played in the Women’s National Basketball Association. Conclusion: After returning to play, men demonstrated a significant drop-off in performance only in regard to total blocks. Female athletes after AT repair demonstrated a significant improvement in points per game but had a significant drop-off in 3-point shooting percentage.

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Gaining Access to Providing Medical Care to Male Sport Teams: The Female Athletic Trainer Perspective

Journal of Athletic Training ◽

10.4085/1062-6050-52.9.03 ◽

2017 ◽

Vol 52 (10) ◽

pp. 946-954

Author(s):

Alicia Pike ◽

Stephanie M. Mazerolle ◽

Jessica L. Barrett

Keyword(s):

Medical Care ◽

Athletic Training ◽

Ncaa Division I ◽

National Collegiate Athletic Association ◽

Division I ◽

Professional Relationships ◽

Sport Team ◽

Sport Teams ◽

Job Access ◽

The University

Context: Female athletic trainers (ATs) can face barriers to employment within the profession. Although there is evidence for an increasing percentage of women in athletic training, the portion providing medical care to male sport teams within the professional sport and collegiate settings continues to be small. Objective: To investigate the experiences of female ATs when seeking employment with male sport teams within the Division I setting. Design: Qualitative study. Setting: National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I. Patients or Other Participants: A total of 15 NCAA Division I female ATs providing medical care to a male sport team participated in our study. Their mean age was 33 ± 9 years, and they had a mean of 11 ± 9 years of overall clinical experience. Data Collection and Analysis: All participants completed one-on-one phone interviews, which were recorded and transcribed. Analysis of the data followed thematic analysis using a phenomenologic approach. Credibility was established through credibility checks, peer review, and researcher triangulation. Results: Factors that played a role in women gaining employment with male sport teams were (1) preexisting professional relationships, (2) prior experience with a male sport, and (3) perseverance. Participants in our study were most attracted to their current positions because of (1) the environment of the collegiate setting and (2) the location of the university. Conclusions: Job access for female ATs in this study was not viewed as a challenge. Familiarity through previous connections with the university and staff and commitment to career goals helped these women obtain the positions they held. The desire to work in male sports was not a primary contributing factor to the decision-making process. Progress continues for women in athletic training, as evidenced by the reported ease of job access with male sport teams.

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Not Going Pro: On Seeking Lasting Returns from College Sports

Journal of Amateur Sport ◽

10.17161/jas.v2i1.5017 ◽

2016 ◽

Vol 2 (1) ◽

pp. 188 ◽

Cited By ~ 1

Author(s):

Matthew Horner ◽

Neal Ternes ◽

Christopher McLeod

Keyword(s):

Decision Making ◽

Ncaa Division I ◽

Capital Investment ◽

Student Athletes ◽

Sport Participation ◽

National Collegiate Athletic Association ◽

Collegiate Athletics ◽

Division I ◽

Personal Investment

The National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) clearly states there are many favorable qualities derived from participation that benefit those “who go pro in something other than sports.” However, the ability of collegiate athletics to deliver on the promise of attributable long-term vocational value is rarely questioned. Instead, student-athletes are encouraged to think of their participation as a personal investment with enduring rewards for the investor. In this study involving former NCAA Division I student-athletes, the authors examined whether participation can be regarded as an investment and how student-athletes perceive the returns thus derived. Extending Becker’s (1962) theory of human capital investment to sport participation, the authors probed participants’ experiences for evidence of investment thinking and lasting benefits in corporeal, economic, social, and cultural varieties. The findings support the notion that participation in collegiate athletics can be broadly defined as an investment, but not in accordance with the long-term utility maximizing rationale described by neoclassical economists. Furthermore, the high cost of participation, inherent uncertainty, and unreliable information confound the athlete’s decision-making and blur the distinction between consumption in the present and investing for the future.

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National Collegiate Athletic Association Division I Athletic Trainers' Concussion-Management Practice Patterns

Journal of Athletic Training ◽

10.4085/1062-6050-49.3.25 ◽

2014 ◽

Vol 49 (5) ◽

pp. 665-673 ◽

Cited By ~ 53

Author(s):

Kassandra C. Kelly ◽

Erin M. Jordan ◽

A. Barry Joyner ◽

G. Trey Burdette ◽

Thomas A. Buckley

Keyword(s):

Clinical Examination ◽

Ncaa Division I ◽

Sports Medicine ◽

National Collegiate Athletic Association ◽

Practice Patterns ◽

Management Practice ◽

Athletic Trainers ◽

Division I ◽

Concussion Management ◽

Consensus Statements

Context: A cornerstone of the recent consensus statements on concussion is a multifaceted concussion-assessment program at baseline and postinjury and when tracking recovery. Earlier studies of athletic trainers' (ATs') practice patterns found limited use of multifaceted protocols; however, these authors typically grouped diverse athletic training settings together. Objective: To (1) describe the concussion-management practice patterns of National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I ATs, (2) compare these practice patterns to earlier studies, and (3) objectively characterize the clinical examination. Design: Cross-sectional study. Setting: Online survey. Patients or Other Participants: A total of 610 ATs from NCAA Division I institutions, for a response rate of 34.4%. Main Outcome Measure(s): The survey had 3 subsections: demographic questions related to the participant's experiences, concussion-assessment practice patterns, and concussion-recovery and return-to-participation practice patterns. Specific practice-pattern questions addressed balance, cognitive and mental status, neuropsychological testing, and self-reported symptoms. Finally, specific components of the clinical examination were examined. Results: We identified high rates of multifaceted assessments (ie, assessments using at least 3 techniques) during testing at baseline (71.2%), acute concussion assessment (79.2%), and return to participation (66.9%). The specific techniques used are provided along with their adherence with evidence-based practice findings. Respondents endorsed a diverse array of clinical examination techniques that often overlapped objective concussion-assessment protocols or were likely used to rule out associated potential conditions. Respondents were cognizant of the Third International Consensus Statement, the National Athletic Trainers' Association position statement, and the revised NCAA Sports Medicine Handbook recommendations. Conclusions: Athletic trainers in NCAA Division I demonstrated widespread use of multifaceted concussion-assessment techniques and appeared compliant with recent consensus statements and the NCAA Sports Medicine Handbook.

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“Do Not Question Authority”: Examining Team Rules in National Collegiate Athletic Association Division I Women’s Basketball

International Sport Coaching Journal ◽

10.1123/iscj.2019-0077 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 7 (3) ◽

pp. 317-325

Author(s):

Leslie K. Larsen ◽

Leslee A. Fisher ◽

Terilyn C. Shigeno ◽

Matthew P. Bejar ◽

Melissa N. Madeson

Keyword(s):

Best Practices ◽

Ncaa Division I ◽

Student Athletes ◽

National Collegiate Athletic Association ◽

Division I ◽

Consensual Qualitative Research ◽

Athletic Departments ◽

Organizational Loyalty ◽

Supportive Environment ◽

Women's Basketball

While the policies National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) athletic departments have in place regarding social media and drug abuse have been empirically investigated, research on the full battery of rules implemented by NCAA teams is scant. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to analyze the written team rules of 41 NCAA Division I women’s basketball teams to better understand the types of rules that are in place and to hypothesize the effects these rules might have on the development of an autonomy-supportive environment. Using Consensual Qualitative Research, the research team constructed seven domains with multiple categories to represent the data. The domains included the following: (a) program expectations, (b) controlled communication, (c) controlled relationships, (d) controlled appearance/attire, (e) controlled social behavior, (f) recommendations for optimal physical performance, and (g) academic expectation. Based on the results of this study, we conclude that NCAA Division I women’s basketball coaches use team rules as a tool for domination rather than a strategy for developing the autonomy of student-athletes. We offer practical suggestions for coach educators, coach developers, and coaches on best practices when creating team rules to develop an autonomy-supportive environment that strengthens organizational loyalty and improves the experiences of student-athletes.

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Total and Regional Body Composition of NCAA Division I Collegiate Baseball Athletes

International Journal of Sports Medicine ◽

10.1055/a-0881-2905 ◽

2019 ◽

Vol 40 (07) ◽

pp. 447-452 ◽

Cited By ~ 1

Author(s):

Madeline A. Czeck ◽

Christiana J. Raymond-Pope ◽

Tyler A. Bosch ◽

Christopher W. Bach ◽

Jonathan M. Oliver ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Body Composition ◽

Ncaa Division I ◽

Total Mass ◽

Division I ◽

Mineral Density ◽

Baseball Players ◽

Significant Difference ◽

Regional Body Composition ◽

Collegiate Baseball ◽

Composition Measurements

AbstractThis study’s purpose was to evaluate total, regional, and throwing versus non-throwing arm body composition measurements between various positions of NCAA Division I male baseball players using dual X-ray absorptiometry (DXA). Two hundred and one collegiate baseball athletes were measured using DXA. Visceral adipose tissue (VAT), total and regional fat mass (FM), lean mass (LM), and bone mineral density (BMD) were measured. Athletes were separated into: pitchers (n=92), catchers (n=25), outfielders (n=43), and infielders (n=41). ANOVA and Tukey’s honest significant difference assessed total and regional differences between positions. Infielders had significantly (p<0.05) lower total LM than pitchers and outfielders. Additionally, outfielders had significantly lower total FM compared to pitchers and catchers. No significant differences between positions were observed for total BMD and VAT. Pitchers’ and infielders’ throwing arm demonstrated significantly greater total mass, FM, LM, and BMD compared to the non-throwing arm. Further, outfielders’ throwing arm total mass, LM, and BMD were significantly higher vs. the non-throwing arm. Significant differences were observed in total and regional body composition measurements across position, in addition to differences in throwing arm vs. non-throwing arm composition. These measurement values are important to coaches and trainers as normative positional DXA data for collegiate baseball players.

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Association of Upper Extremity Pain With Softball Pitching Kinematics and Kinetics

Orthopaedic Journal of Sports Medicine ◽

10.1177/2325967119865171 ◽

2019 ◽

Vol 7 (8) ◽

pp. 232596711986517 ◽

Cited By ~ 3

Author(s):

Gretchen D. Oliver ◽

Kenzie Friesen ◽

Jeff W. Barfield ◽

Kevin Giordano ◽

Adam Anz ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Upper Extremity ◽

Ncaa Division I ◽

Stride Length ◽

National Collegiate Athletic Association ◽

Tracking System ◽

Center Of Mass ◽

The United States ◽

Division I ◽

Trunk Rotation ◽

Kinetic Chain

Background: There is a paucity of research regarding the relationship between fastpitch softball pitching mechanics and reported pain. Thus, understanding the pitching mechanics of athletes pitching with upper extremity pain and those pain free is paramount. Purpose: To examine lower extremity pitching mechanics, upper extremity kinetics, and upper extremity pain in National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I female softball pitchers. Study Design: Descriptive laboratory study. Methods: A total of 37 NCAA Division I female softball pitchers (mean age, 19.84 ± 1.28 years; mean height, 173.67 ± 7.77 cm; mean weight, 78.98 ± 12.40 kg) from across the United States were recruited to participate. Participants were divided into 2 groups: upper extremity pain (n = 13; mean age, 19.69 ± 1.18 years; mean height, 172.60 ± 11.49 cm; mean weight, 86.75 ± 13.02 kg) and pain free (n = 24; mean age, 19.91 ± 1.35 years; mean height, 174.26 ± 4.96 cm; mean weight, 74.78 ± 9.97 kg). An electromagnetic tracking system was used to obtain kinematic and kinetic data during the riseball softball pitch. Results: At foot contact ( F 3,33 = 7.01, P = .001), backward elimination regression revealed that stride length, trunk rotation, and center of mass (COM) significantly explained about 33% of variance with softball pitchers experiencing upper extremity pain (adjusted R 2 = 0.33). Conclusion: At foot contact, the kinematic variables of increased trunk rotation toward the pitching arm side, increased stride length, and a posteriorly shifted COM were associated with upper extremity pain in collegiate softball pitchers. Variables early in the pitching motion that do not set a working and constructive proximal kinetic chain foundation for the rest of the pitch to follow could be associated with breakdowns more distal in the kinetic chain, possibly increasing the susceptibility to upper extremity pain. Clinical Relevance: The identification of pitching mechanics associated with pain allows clinicians to develop exercises to avoid such mechanics. Avoiding mechanics associated with pain may help reduce the prevalence of pain in windmill softball pitchers as well as help coaches incorporate quantitative biomechanics into their instruction.

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