Can Enhancing Efficiency Promote the Economic Viability of Smallholder Farmers? A Case of Sierra Leone

By developing meta-frontier efficiency and structural equation models, the paper examines whether farm economic viability is positively associated with technical efficiency in a highly food insecure context, such as that of rural Sierra Leone. The findings show that technical efficiency can be a sufficient but not necessary condition in determining economic viability of smallholder farming. It is possible to breach reproductive thresholds at the cost of reduced technical efficiency, when the crop diversification strategy of smallholders includes market-oriented high-value crops. This calls for a dual policy approach that addresses farmers’ internal needs for self-consumption (increasing efficiency of food crop production) while encouraging market-oriented cash crop production (diversification assisted through the reduction of associated transaction costs and the establishment of accessible commercialization channels of export related crops and/or high-value crops). The work also calls out for a move-up or move-out strategy for small holders to create viable farming systems in developing world.

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Challenges of Smallholder Farming in Ethiopia and Opportunities by Adopting Climate-Smart Agriculture

Agriculture ◽

10.3390/agriculture11030192 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 11 (3) ◽

pp. 192

Author(s):

Gebeyanesh Zerssa ◽

Debela Feyssa ◽

Dong-Gill Kim ◽

Bettina Eichler-Löbermann

Keyword(s):

Land Tenure ◽

Crop Production ◽

Crop Yields ◽

Smallholder Farmers ◽

Farming Systems ◽

Greenhouse Gas Mitigation ◽

Extreme Weather Events ◽

Smallholder Farming ◽

Smallholder Farming Systems ◽

Smart Agriculture

Agriculture is the backbone of the Ethiopian economy, and the agricultural sector is dominated by smallholder farming systems. The farming systems are facing constraints such as small land size, lack of resources, and increasing degradation of soil quality that hamper sustainable crop production and food security. The effects of climate change (e.g., frequent occurrence of extreme weather events) exacerbate these problems. Applying appropriate technologies like climate-smart agriculture (CSA) can help to resolve the constraints of smallholder farming systems. This paper provides a comprehensive overview regarding opportunities and challenges of traditional and newly developed CSA practices in Ethiopia, such as integrated soil fertility management, water harvesting, and agroforestry. These practices are commonly related to drought resilience, stability of crop yields, carbon sequestration, greenhouse gas mitigation, and higher household income. However, the adoption of the practices by smallholder farmers is often limited, mainly due to shortage of cropland, land tenure issues, lack of adequate knowledge about CSA, slow return on investments, and insufficient policy and implementation schemes. It is suggested that additional measures be developed and made available to help CSA practices become more prevalent in smallholder farming systems. The measures should include the utilization of degraded and marginal lands, improvement of the soil organic matter management, provision of capacity-building opportunities and financial support, as well as the development of specific policies for smallholder farming.

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Upscaling Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Symbiosis and Related Agroecosystems Services in Smallholder Farming Systems

BioMed Research International ◽

10.1155/2016/4376240 ◽

2016 ◽

Vol 2016 ◽

pp. 1-12 ◽

Cited By ~ 15

Author(s):

Marjorie Bonareri Oruru ◽

Ezekiel Mugendi Njeru

Keyword(s):

Soil Fertility ◽

Mycorrhizal Fungi ◽

Crop Production ◽

Smallholder Farmers ◽

Farming Systems ◽

Arbuscular Mycorrhizal ◽

Resource Scarcity ◽

Mycorrhizal Symbiosis ◽

Smallholder Farming ◽

Smallholder Farming Systems

Smallholder farming systems form unique ecosystems that can protect beneficial soil biota and form an important source of useful genetic resources. They are characterized by high level of agricultural diversity mainly focused on meeting farmers’ needs. Unfortunately, these systems often experience poor crop production mainly associated with poor planning and resource scarcity. Soil fertility is among the primary challenges faced by smallholder farmers, which necessitate the need to come up with affordable and innovative ways of replenishing soils. One such way is the use of microbial symbionts such as arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF), a beneficial group of soil microbiota that form symbiotic associations with majority of cultivated crops and play a vital role in biological soil fertility, plant nutrition, and protection. AMF can be incorporated in smallholder farming systems to help better exploit chemical fertilizers inputs which are often unaffordable to many smallholder farmers. The present review highlights smallholder farming practices that could be innovatively redesigned to increase AMF symbiosis and related agroecosystem services. Indeed, the future of global food security depends on the success of smallholder farming systems, whose crop productivity depends on the services provided by well-functioning ecosystems, including soil fertility.

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Agricultural Technical Efficiency of Smallholder Farmers in Ethiopia: A Stochastic Frontier Approach

Land ◽

10.3390/land10030246 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 10 (3) ◽

pp. 246

Author(s):

Markose Chekol Zewdie ◽

Michele Moretti ◽

Daregot Berihun Tenessa ◽

Zemen Ayalew Ayele ◽

Jan Nyssen ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Technical Efficiency ◽

Crop Production ◽

Large Scale ◽

Positive Impact ◽

Smallholder Farmers ◽

Stochastic Frontier ◽

Crop Productivity ◽

Small Scale ◽

Stochastic Frontier Approach ◽

Small Scale Irrigation

In the past decade, to improve crop production and productivity, Ethiopia has embarked on an ambitious irrigation farming expansion program and has introduced new large- and small-scale irrigation initiatives. However, in Ethiopia, poverty remains a challenge, and crop productivity per unit area of land is very low. Literature on the technical efficiency (TE) of large-scale and small-scale irrigation user farmers as compared to the non-user farmers in Ethiopia is also limited. Investigating smallholder farmers’ TE level and its principal determinants is very important to increase crop production and productivity and to improve smallholder farmers’ livelihood and food security. Using 1026 household-level cross-section data, this study adopts a technology flexible stochastic frontier approach to examine agricultural TE of large-scale irrigation users, small-scale irrigation users and non-user farmers in Ethiopia. The results indicate that, due to poor extension services and old-style agronomic practices, the mean TE of farmers is very low (44.33%), implying that there is a wider room for increasing crop production in the study areas through increasing the TE of smallholder farmers without additional investment in novel agricultural technologies. Results also show that large-scale irrigation user farmers (21.05%) are less technically efficient than small-scale irrigation user farmers (60.29%). However, improving irrigation infrastructure shifts the frontier up and has a positive impact on smallholder farmers’ output.

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Transaction Costs and the Marketable Surplus of Milk in Smallholder Farming Systems of the Gambia

Outlook on Agriculture ◽

10.5367/000000005774378784 ◽

2005 ◽

Vol 34 (3) ◽

pp. 189-195 ◽

Cited By ~ 4

Author(s):

Jacques Somda ◽

Eric Tollens ◽

Mulumba Kamuanga

Keyword(s):

Smallholder Farmers ◽

Farming Systems ◽

The Gambia ◽

Perfect Competition ◽

Subsistence Farming ◽

Smallholder Farming ◽

Economic Paradigm ◽

Marketable Surplus ◽

Milk Marketing ◽

Cost Factors

The neoclassical economic paradigm views market linkages as efficient mechanisms for trading. However, the validity of this position is questionable, as markets frequently do not possess the structural conditions necessary for perfect competition. In subsistence-farming systems, factors that prevent greater participation of smallholders in markets can be found from the production level to the access to markets themselves. This study investigates the transaction-cost factors operating in smallholder dairy farms in The Gambia. The results indicate that access to market at the farm gate, the number of local cows and the distance to the nearest city increase the likelihood of market participation by producers and the marketing of surpluses of dairy products. Increases in home consumption lead to decreases in sales and of farmers' participation in milk marketing. To achieve pro-poor rural growth, it is therefore essential to address explicitly the low productivity of dairy cattle, low capital endowments and market accessibility for smallholder farmers.

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Efficacy of Neem Tree (Azadirachta indica A. Jusieu) Extract on White Cabbage Aphid (Brevicoryne brassicae L. (Hem: Aphididae) Control in the Field

Journal of Agricultural Science ◽

10.5539/jas.v10n3p370 ◽

2018 ◽

Vol 10 (3) ◽

pp. 370

Author(s):

Amongi Evaline Stella ◽

Murongo Marius Flarian ◽

Mwine Julius Tedson

Keyword(s):

Smallholder Farmers ◽

Block Design ◽

Farming Systems ◽

Root Bark ◽

Economic Injury Level ◽

High Concentration ◽

Smallholder Farming ◽

Neem Tree ◽

Neem Extract ◽

Cabbage Aphid

Neem tree extracts from root, bark and leaves have generally been used in the control of pests. The extracts’ efficacy in the control of aphids in cabbages under smallholder farming systems formed the subject of the study. The dose of the admixture of the extract that effectively controlled aphids was determined through experimental methods that involved harvesting and crashing 0.1 × 10-4 of Neem tree parts. The extract was fermented for 18-48 hours.Treatment tests solutions varied were 20 mL, 30 mL and 40 mL of the extract respectively in 10litres of water and applied to cabbage in the field at intervals of once a week, twice a week and once in 2 weeks in a triplicated completely Randomized Block Design. The treated plants were observed for average number of live aphids, number of dead aphids, degree of leaf perforation, leaf curls, stunting, and finally the yield of the cabbage visa vis treatments. Aphid counts at the concentration of 30mL in 10L of water were significantly lower for live aphids and higher for dead aphids (P < 0.05), Although all treatments revealed significant differences from the control in terms of Aphid mortality, overall mean aphid counts showed a reduction in number (implying high mortality) with an increase in the concentration of Neem extract applied and cabbage vigour increased with increase in the frequency of admixture application, with a bi-weekly application producing significant results (P < 0.05). High concentration (40 mL) more effectively controlled aphids but resulted in mild scorched leaves. Smallholder farmers should take advantage of the naturally available Neem tree concoctions of 30 mLs in 10litres of water twice a week to keep aphid’s population below the economic injury level.

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What Farm Size Sustains a Living? Exploring Future Options to Attain a Living Income From Smallholder Farming in the East African Highlands

Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems ◽

10.3389/fsufs.2021.759105 ◽

2022 ◽

Vol 5 ◽

Author(s):

Wytze Marinus ◽

Eva S. Thuijsman ◽

Mark T. van Wijk ◽

Katrien Descheemaeker ◽

Gerrie W. J. van de Ven ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Crop Production ◽

Smallholder Farmers ◽

Skewed Distribution ◽

Sub Saharan Africa ◽

Farm Size ◽

East African ◽

Smallholder Farming ◽

Cropping Patterns ◽

African Highlands ◽

East African Highlands

Smallholder farming in sub-Saharan Africa keeps many rural households trapped in a cycle of poor productivity and low incomes. Two options to reach a decent income include intensification of production and expansion of farm areas per household. In this study, we explore what is a “viable farm size,” i.e., the farm area that is required to attain a “living income,” which sustains a nutritious diet, housing, education and health care. We used survey data from three contrasting sites in the East African highlands—Nyando (Kenya), Rakai (Uganda), and Lushoto (Tanzania) to explore viable farm sizes in six scenarios. Starting from the baseline cropping system, we built scenarios by incrementally including intensified and re-configured cropping systems, income from livestock and off-farm sources. In the most conservative scenario (baseline cropping patterns and yields, minus basic input costs), viable farm areas were 3.6, 2.4, and 2.1 ha, for Nyando, Rakai, and Lushoto, respectively—whereas current median farm areas were just 0.8, 1.8, and 0.8 ha. Given the skewed distribution of current farm areas, only few of the households in the study sites (0, 27, and 4% for Nyando, Rakai, and Lushoto, respectively) were able to attain a living income. Raising baseline yields to 50% of the water-limited yields strongly reduced the land area needed to achieve a viable farm size, and thereby enabled 92% of the households in Rakai and 70% of the households in Lushoto to attain a living income on their existing farm areas. By contrast, intensification of crop production alone was insufficient in Nyando, although including income from livestock enabled the majority of households (73%) to attain a living income with current farm areas. These scenarios show that increasing farm area and/or intensifying production is required for smallholder farmers to attain a living income from farming. Obviously such changes would require considerable capital and labor investment, as well as land reform and alternative off-farm employment options for those who exit farming.

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Determinants of Smallholder Households’ Resilience to Livelihood Insecurity in Goncha District, Northwest Highlands of Ethiopia

10.20944/preprints202112.0437.v1 ◽

2021 ◽

Author(s):

Ermias Debie ◽

Amare Wubishet Ayele

Keyword(s):

Sustainable Management ◽

Structural Equation ◽

Smallholder Farmers ◽

Farming Systems ◽

Farming System ◽

Primary Data ◽

Equation Modeling ◽

Tree Plantation ◽

Poor Households ◽

Productive Assets

Poor households are more likely less resilient under climate change, risks of productive assets, social-related shocks, and decline of land productivity. The ability to deal with household resilience against poverty under the uncertain condition of risk is limited in the highlands of Ethiopia. The study aims to identify determinants of household resilience to livelihood insecurity under the crop-livestock mixed farming systems in Goncha district, Northwest highlands of Ethiopia. Primary data were collected by conducting face-to-face interviews among 280 households using structured questionnaire. Descriptive statistics, Kruskal-Wallis test and structural equation modeling were used to analyse the data. The results disclosed that sustainable management of the farming systems, cultivation of more fertile farmland, saving performance, diversification of income-earning activities, intensification of livestock husbandry practices, access to irrigation, and familiarity with practical technologies were found to be significant determinants at p<0.001 to household resilience of smallholder farmers. Social network development and tree plantation were explained household resilience to livelihood insecurity at P<0.01 and P<0.1 significant levels, respectively. The study concluded that scaling up sustainable management of the farming system and practical technologies, enhancing saving behavior, promoting income diversification, and intensifying agroforestry are significant for household resilience to livelihood insecurity of smallholders across agro-ecologies.

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Flood Based Farming Systems in South-Eastern Africa: Smallholder Farmers’ Choice

10.5194/egusphere-egu21-498 ◽

2021 ◽

Author(s):

Arab Msume ◽

Giulio Castelli ◽

Faidess Mwale

Keyword(s):

Capital Investment ◽

Crop Production ◽

Smallholder Farmers ◽

Farming Systems ◽

Sub Saharan Africa ◽

Eastern Africa ◽

Group Discussions ◽

Human Welfare ◽

Direct Observations ◽

Sub Saharan

<p>Agriculture is critical for human welfare and economic growth in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). However, especially rainfed agriculture remains vulnerable to the impacts of climate change in the region. This has generated increasing interest in practices such as Flood Based Farming Systems (FBFS) which enable turning flood water into an opportunity for crop production for smallholder farmers living in flood plains. Despite this interest, there is limited knowledge about farmers&#8217; preference in terms of choices about a specific FBFS and therefore about which specific FBFS needs improvements for realizing its full benefits. The present study characterizes FBFS in Balaka District, Eastern Malawi, in order to develop a pilot approach for gaining knowledge and insights about farmers&#8217; preferences. Data were collected from a sample of 398 questionnaires, direct observations, focus group discussions and key informant interviews, and they were analyzed through SPSS. Results show that Flood Recession Agriculture (FRA) was predominantly practiced (54%), together with other FBFS such as Depression Agriculture (DA), Spate Irrigation (SI) and Dug Outs (DO). Low capital investment and low level of awareness of farmers were referred to be critical for FRA adoption with (p<0.00003) and (p<0.004) respectively. Therefore, investing on FRA, which has already proven to be used in the area, could be a key to improve food security in the area.&#160;</p>

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Agroecological Intensification of Smallholder Farming

10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195397772.013.006 ◽

2013 ◽

Author(s):

Rebecca Nelson ◽

Richard Coe

Keyword(s):

Sound Production ◽

Production Systems ◽

Smallholder Farmers ◽

Farming Systems ◽

Value Chains ◽

Resource Use Efficiency ◽

Climate Variability And Change ◽

Smallholder Farming ◽

Use Efficiency ◽

Research Frontiers

The smallholder farmers who cultivate many of the planet’s diverse production systems are faced with numerous challenges, including poverty, shrinking farm sizes, degrading natural resources, and climate variability and change. Efforts to improve the performance of smallholder farming systems focus on improving access to input and output markets, improving farm resource use efficiency, and improving resources invested in smallholder farming. In order to support market-oriented production and self-provisioning, there is a need for greater focus on agroecological intensification (AEI) of smallholder production systems. This chapter provides an overview of some of the research frontiers supporting AEI. Market-oriented and agroecological approaches may or may not conflict, and more effort should be made to ensure that they are mutually reinforcing. To be reliable, value chains must be founded on sound production ecology. Agroecological options may be limited if farmers cannot participate in markets that support investment in the intensification and diversification of these systems. Because options must be adapted to farmers’ heterogeneous and dynamic contexts, successful AEI will require that specifics be optimized locally. Researchers must therefore understand and communicate relevant agroecological principles, and farmers and intermediaries must develop their capacity to adapt the principles to local needs and realities.

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