Change in Paralytic Shellfish Toxins in the Mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis Depending on Dynamics of Harmful Alexandrium catenella (Group I) in the Geoje Coast (South Korea) during Bloom Season

Paralytic shellfish toxins (PSTs) produced by Alexandrium catenella (formerly A. tamarense) in Korean coastal waters caused the deaths of four people (in 1986 and 1996) who consumed contaminated mussels (Mytilus edulis). This led to more detailed consideration of the risks of PST outbreaks and incidents in Korea, including the introduction of shellfish collection bans. In this study, we investigated the relationships between A. catenella population dynamics and PST accumulation in the mussel M. galloprovincialis. Discharges from the Nakdong River affect the environmental conditions along the Geoje coast, resulting in low salinity and high nutrient levels that trigger blooms of A. catenella. At the toxin peak on 24 April 2017, the toxins detected in A. catenella cells were C1, gonyautoxin (GTX)1 and GTX2, whereas the concentrations of PSTs in M. galloprovincialis were high and in the order of GTX4 > GTX1 > GTX3 > saxitoxin (STX) > GTX2 > neoSTX > decarbamoylgonyautoxin (dcGTX)2 > dc GTX3. The PST level in mussels was also high. At 15 °C, the PSTs are constantly found to be higher (10-fold higher in 2017 and 30-fold higher in 2018) than safe levels for human consumption (80 μg STX diHCl equivalents 100 g−1).

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Uptake of Paralytic Shellfish Toxins by Blacklip Abalone (Haliotis rubra rubra Leach) from direct exposure to Alexandrium catenella microalgal cells and toxic aquaculture feed

Harmful Algae ◽

10.1016/j.hal.2020.101925 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 99 ◽

pp. 101925 ◽

Cited By ~ 1

Author(s):

Andreas Seger ◽

Gustaaf Hallegraeff ◽

David A.J. Stone ◽

Matthew S. Bansemer ◽

D. Tim Harwood ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Alexandrium Catenella ◽

Shellfish Toxins ◽

Paralytic Shellfish Toxins ◽

Paralytic Shellfish ◽

Direct Exposure ◽

Aquaculture Feed ◽

Haliotis Rubra

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A Feedback Mechanism to Control Apoptosis Occurs in the Digestive Gland of the Oyster Crassostrea gigas Exposed to the Paralytic Shellfish Toxins Producer Alexandrium catenella

Marine Drugs ◽

10.3390/md12095035 ◽

2014 ◽

Vol 12 (9) ◽

pp. 5035-5054 ◽

Cited By ~ 4

Author(s):

Jean-Luc Rolland ◽

Walid Medhioub ◽

Agnes Vergnes ◽

Celina Abi-khalil ◽

Véronique Savar ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Digestive Gland ◽

Crassostrea Gigas ◽

Feedback Mechanism ◽

Alexandrium Catenella ◽

Shellfish Toxins ◽

Paralytic Shellfish Toxins ◽

Paralytic Shellfish

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Chitosan performance during Paralytic Shellfish Toxins (PST) depuration of Mytilus chilensis exposed to Alexandrium catenella

Toxicon ◽

10.1016/j.toxicon.2021.03.008 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 195 ◽

pp. 48-57

Author(s):

Jésica Tobke ◽

Erica Giarratano ◽

Alejandro Ortiz ◽

Carla Garrido ◽

Mariana Serra ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Alexandrium Catenella ◽

Shellfish Toxins ◽

Paralytic Shellfish Toxins ◽

Paralytic Shellfish

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Multi-Toxin Quantitative Analysis of Paralytic Shellfish Toxins and Tetrodotoxins in Bivalve Mollusks with Ultra-Performance Hydrophilic Interaction LC-MS/MS—An In-House Validation Study

Toxins ◽

10.3390/toxins12070452 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 12 (7) ◽

pp. 452

Author(s):

Fadillah Putri Patria ◽

Heidi Pekar ◽

Aida Zuberovic-Muratovic

Keyword(s):

Screening Method ◽

Human Consumption ◽

Official Method ◽

Hydrophilic Interaction ◽

Linear Calibration ◽

Shellfish Toxins ◽

Paralytic Shellfish Toxins ◽

Paralytic Shellfish ◽

Liquid Chromatography Tandem Mass ◽

Set Up

Ultra-performance hydrophilic interaction liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry system (UP-HILIC–MS/MS) was used in multi-toxin analysis of paralytic shellfish toxins (PSTs) and tetrodotoxins (TTXs) in sample matrices from bivalve molluscan species commercially produced for human consumption in Sweden. The method validation includes 17 toxins of which GTX6 and two TTX analogues, TTX and 4,9-anhydroTTX, were previously not analyzed together with hydrophilic PSTs. 11-deoxyTTX was monitored qualitatively with a non-certified reference standard. The performance of the method was evaluated for selectivity, repeatability, and linearity by analyzing spiked samples which generated linear calibration curves across the concentration ranges used (R2 > 0.99). The in-house reproducibility (RSD) was satisfactory including the LOD and LOQ for both PST and TTX toxins being far below their regulatory action limits. The major advantage of the method is that it allows direct confirmation of the toxin identity and specific toxin quantification using a derivatization-free approach. Unlike the PST-chemical methods used in routine regulatory monitoring until now for food control, the UP-HILIC-MS/MS approach enables the calibration set-up for each of the toxin analogs separately, thereby providing the essential flexibility and specificity in analysis of this challenging group of toxins. The method is suitable to implement in food monitoring for PSTs and TTXs in bivalves, and can serve as a fast and cost-efficient screening method. However, positive samples would, for regulatory reasons still need to be confirmed using the AOAC official method (2005.06).

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Production of Paralytic Shellfish Toxins (PSTs) in Toxic Alexandrium catenella is Intertwined with Photosynthesis and Energy Production

Toxins ◽

10.3390/toxins12080477 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 12 (8) ◽

pp. 477 ◽

Cited By ~ 1

Author(s):

Sirius Pui-kam Tse ◽

Fred Wang-fat Lee ◽

Daniel Yun-lam Mak ◽

Hang-kin Kong ◽

Kenrick Kai-yuen Chan ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Energy Production ◽

Light Availability ◽

Continuous Light ◽

Toxin Production ◽

Normal Medium ◽

Alexandrium Catenella ◽

Shellfish Toxins ◽

Paralytic Shellfish Toxins ◽

Toxin Content ◽

Paralytic Shellfish

To investigate the mechanism for the production of paralytic shellfish toxins (PST) in toxic dinoflagellates, with a 2D-gel based approach, we had made two sets of proteomic comparisons: (a) between a toxic Alexandrium catenella (AC-T) and a phylogenetically closely related non-toxic strain (AC-N), (b) between toxic AC-T grown in a medium with 10% normal amount of phosphate (AC-T-10%P) known to induce higher toxicity and AC-T grown in normal medium. We found that photosynthesis and energy production related proteins were up-regulated in AC-T when compared to AC-N. However, the same group of proteins was down-regulated in AC-T-10%P when compared to normal AC-T. Examining the relationship of photosynthesis and toxin content of AC-T upon continuous photoperiod experiment revealed that while growth and associated toxin content increased after 8 days of continuous light, toxin content maintained constant when cells were shifted from continuous light to continuous dark for 3 days. This emphasized the cruciality of light availability on toxin biosynthesis in AC-T, while another light-independent mechanism may be responsible for higher toxicity in AC-T-10%P compared to normal AC-T. Taken all together, it is believed that the interplay between “illumination”, “photosynthesis”, “phosphate availability”, and “toxin production” is much more complicated than what we had previously anticipated.

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