Theory and Implementation of Inclusion

Attitudes Toward Inclusion ◽

Human Right ◽

Positive Attitudes ◽

Teachers Attitudes ◽

The inclusion of students with special needs in general education settings has become an essential component of education. Including all students in the least restrictive environment to the maximum extent possible is the law and an innate human right. However, research reveals that some teachers do not have positive attitudes toward including students with disabilities. The purpose of this chapter is to discuss findings from a study that uncovered factors behind teachers' attitudes toward inclusion. The general findings and themes are discussed. The chapter concludes with a list of resources teachers can access without payment to help them better understand students with disabilities and ways in which the teacher can more easily develop an inclusive, inviting environment for all.

Inclusion, School Restructuring, and the Remaking of American Society

Harvard Educational Review ◽

10.17763/haer.66.4.3686k7x734246430 ◽

1996 ◽

Vol 66 (4) ◽

pp. 762-797 ◽

Cited By ~ 110

Author(s):

Dorothy Kerzner Lipsky ◽

Alan Gartner

Keyword(s):

Special Education ◽

Special Needs ◽

School Restructuring ◽

Educational Systems ◽

Recent Developments ◽

American Society ◽

In this article, Dorothy Kerzner Lipsky and Alan Gartner discuss recent developments in special education and measure them against their inclusionary model. This article expands and updates their 1987 HER article, "Beyond Special Education: Toward a Quality System for All Students," a review of the implementation of PL 94-142, which, though the basis for placement in the least restrictive environment, in fact provided legal support for the development of separate educational systems for students with special needs. Here, Lipsky and Gartner continue their argument that the special education model must not separate those with special needs. They argue that inclusion provides all students with a quality education that is both individual and integrated, citing recent court cases that support their contention that all students can and should be educated in the same classroom. Lipsky and Gartner conclude by showing how their inclusionary model adds to the school restructuring debate, which until now has excluded any mention of students with disabilities. They believe that special education should be viewed as a matter of social justice and equity, and see inclusion as a way of both restructuring education and remaking American society.

Online Learning as a Form of Accommodation

Encyclopedia of Information Science and Technology, Second Edition ◽

10.4018/978-1-60566-026-4.ch464 ◽

2011 ◽

pp. 2906-2910

Author(s):

Terence Cavanaugh

Keyword(s):

General Education ◽

Special Needs ◽

Adult Population ◽

Department Of Education ◽

Special Needs Students ◽

General Education Teacher ◽

The Past ◽

Education Act

An estimated three billion people, representing approximately half of the planet’s population, are in some way affected by disabilities, which includes an estimated 150 million from the United States of America (Half the Planet, 2001). According to the Twenty-Third Annual Report to Congress on the Implementation of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (U.S. Department of Education, 2002a), concerning students with special needs between the ages of three and 21, the U.S. and its outlying areas are currently serving educationally more than 6,272,000 students classified as having a disability. The inclusion model, in which a special needs student participates in the “regular” classroom, has become the current classroom education standard. Today’s special needs students have increasing impacts on the general education teacher as, during the past 10 years, the percentage of students with disabilities served in schools and classes with their non-disabled peers has gradually grown to over 90% in 1998 (U.S. Department of Education, 2000b). Because of the large and increasing number of special needs students, assistive educational technology is growing in importance. The population of postsecondary students with disabilities has increased over the past two decades, and currently there are approximately one million persons in postsecondary institutions who are classified as having some form of disability (U.S. Department of Education, 2000b). In 1994, approximately 45% of the adult population who reported having a disability had either attended some college or had completed a bachelor’s degree or higher, as compared to only 29% in 1986 (National Center for Educational Statistics, 1999a).

Effective Practices for Teaching Writing to Students with Disabilities in the United States

Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Education ◽

10.1093/acrefore/9780190264093.013.1208 ◽

2019 ◽

Author(s):

April Camping ◽

Steve Graham

Keyword(s):

Special Education ◽

General Education ◽

Special Needs ◽

The United States ◽

Individual Student ◽

Writing Practices ◽

General Education Classroom ◽

Critical Skills

Writing is especially challenging for students with disabilities, as 19 out of every 20 of these students experience difficulty learning to write. In order to maximize writing growth, effective instructional practices need to be applied in the general education classroom where many students with special needs are educated. This should minimize special education referrals and maximize the progress of these students as writers. Evidence-based writing practices for the general education classroom include ensuring that students write frequently for varying purposes; creating a pleasant and motivating writing environment; supporting students as they compose; teaching critical skills, processes, and knowledge; and using 21st-century writing tools. It is also important to be sure that practices specifically effective for enhancing the writing growth of students with special needs are applied in both general and special education settings (where some students with disabilities may receive part or all of their writing instruction). This includes methods for preventing writing disabilities, tailoring instruction to meet individual student needs, addressing roadblocks that can impede writing growth, and using specialized writing technology that allows these students to circumvent one or more of their writing challenges.

Do Teachers Spend Less Time Teaching in Classrooms With Students With Special Needs? Trends From International Data

Educational Researcher ◽

10.3102/0013189x19852306 ◽

2019 ◽

Vol 48 (5) ◽

pp. 273-286 ◽

Cited By ~ 1

Author(s):

North Cooc

Keyword(s):

General Education ◽

Special Needs ◽

Behavioral Problems ◽

Teaching And Learning ◽

School Factors ◽

International Data ◽

Teaching Time ◽

General Education Classrooms

Debates about the inclusion of students with disabilities in general education classrooms often overlook its impact on teachers. In this study, I analyze the concern that teachers may spend less time teaching in classrooms with children with special needs using survey data on 121,173 teachers from 38 participating countries and partners of the Teaching and Learning International Survey (TALIS) 2013. I further examine teacher, classroom, and school factors that may explain disparities in time spent teaching in classrooms with and without students with special needs. The findings indicate teachers, on average, spend marginally less class time on teaching in classrooms that include more students with special needs. The disparity in teaching time is mostly removed when accounting for students with behavioral problems in classrooms.

Being in the Right Place at the Right Time: Educational Placement of Students With Intellectual Disability by State and Year

Inclusion ◽

10.1352/2326-6988-8.3.210 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 8 (3) ◽

pp. 210-221

Author(s):

Eric J. Anderson ◽

Matthew E. Brock

Keyword(s):

Intellectual Disability ◽

General Education ◽

Educational Placement ◽

Placement Decisions ◽

Federal Mandate ◽

Restrictive Environment ◽

The Right ◽

General Education Classrooms

Abstract Despite the longstanding federal mandate to place students with disabilities in general education classrooms to the maximum extent appropriate, most students with intellectual disability continue to spend most of their time in separate classrooms and schools. In this study, we describe longitudinal educational placement patterns in six states that represent the wide span of educational placement (i.e., Vermont, Kentucky, Kansas, Massachusetts, Illinois, and Montana). Surprisingly, some states are trending toward more restrictive placements, and the gap between the most and least inclusive states is continuing to widen over time. We offer constructive suggestions for appropriately applying the principle of least restrictive environment so that placement decisions are driven by student needs and not where students live.

Increasing Inclusive Education Through a Learning Center Model: A California Approach

Journal of Education and Development ◽

10.20849/jed.v4i1.705 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 4 (1) ◽

pp. 43

Author(s):

Aja McKee ◽

Audri Sandoval Gomez

Keyword(s):

Special Education ◽

General Education ◽

Inclusive Education ◽

Deep Structure ◽

Learning Center ◽

Educational Programming ◽

Federal Mandate ◽

Learning center models offer students with disabilities learning experiences in general education classrooms, while retaining support and services from special education personnel. The learning center approach examines existing educational perspectives, practices and structures, surrounding access to general education for students with disabilities. This study used a document analysis, a qualitative data method, to examine how two California school districts developed a learning center model to transform special education programming from segregated special education classrooms and practices to placement and access to general education. The findings inform educational programming for students with disabilities in the least restrictive environment, to comply with the American federal mandate. Findings suggest that the deep structure of educational practices complicated the ease of a change in practices for both general and special educators. However, the community approach of the learning center model, where all teachers assume the educational responsibilities for all students, forced these educators to be flexible, reexamine structures and practices, and challenge the ethos of traditional schooling.

Online Learning as a Form of Accomodation

Encyclopedia of Information Science and Technology, First Edition ◽

10.4018/978-1-59140-553-5.ch389 ◽

2005 ◽

pp. 2209-2213

Author(s):

Terence Cavannaugh

Keyword(s):

General Education ◽

Special Needs ◽

Adult Population ◽

Department Of Education ◽

Special Needs Students ◽

General Education Teacher ◽

The Past ◽

Education Act

An estimated three billion people, representing approximately half of the planet’s population, are in some way affected by disabilities, which includes an estimated 150 million from the United States of America (Half the Planet, 2001). According to the Twenty-Third Annual Report to Congress on the Implementation of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (U.S. Department of Education, 2002a), concerning students with special needs between the ages of three and 21, the U.S. and its outlying areas are currently serving educationally more than 6,272,000 students classified as having a disability. The inclusion model, in which a special needs student participates in the “regular” classroom, has become the current classroom education standard. Today’s special needs students have increasing impacts on the general education teacher as, during the past 10 years, the percentage of students with disabilities served in schools and classes with their non-disabled peers has gradually grown to over 90% in 1998 (U.S. Department of Education, 2000b). Because of the large and increasing number of special needs students, assistive educational technology is growing in importance. The population of postsecondary students with disabilities has increased over the past two decades, and currently there are approximately one million persons in postsecondary institutions who are classified as having some form of disability (U.S. Department of Education, 2000b). In 1994, approximately 45% of the adult population who reported having a disability had either attended some college or had completed a bachelor’s degree or higher, as compared to only 29% in 1986 (National Center for Educational Statistics, 1999a).

Who Are the Classmates of Students With Disabilities in Elementary Mathematics Classrooms?

Remedial and Special Education ◽

10.1177/0741932518789493 ◽

2018 ◽

Vol 41 (1) ◽

pp. 18-27 ◽

Cited By ~ 1

Author(s):

Allison F. Gilmour ◽

Gary T. Henry

Keyword(s):

General Education ◽

Fifth Grade ◽

Future Research ◽

Students With Learning Disabilities ◽

Mathematics Classrooms ◽

Disabilities Education Act ◽

Education Act ◽

The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act stresses the importance of educating students with disabilities (SWDs) in the least restrictive environment, often with peers who do not have disabilities. Prior research has examined the extent to which SWDs are included in general education classrooms, but not the characteristics of the peers with whom SWDs are educated. We examined the math classmates of fourth- and fifth-grade SWDs from one state. On average, SWDs were grouped with twice as many other SWDs, about four per class, than students without disabilities. Students with learning disabilities had fewer peers with disabilities in their classrooms than students with other disabilities. Students with intellectual disabilities, autism, or emotional/behavioral disorders more often had peers with disabilities, often their same disability. Our results provide directions for future research regarding peer effects and understanding how schools group SWDs.

Is Integration of Students with Disabilities Happening?

Remedial and Special Education ◽

10.1177/074193259401500402 ◽

1994 ◽

Vol 15 (4) ◽

pp. 204-215 ◽

Cited By ~ 28

Author(s):

Richard J. Sawyer ◽

Margaret J. McLaughlin ◽

Marianne Winglee

Keyword(s):

Public Schools ◽

General Education ◽

General Public ◽

Regular Education Initiative ◽

Is Integration ◽

Restrictive Environment ◽

General Education Classrooms ◽

Education Initiative

This Study Analyzed National Program Record Data to Determine the Extent to which Students with Various Disabilities have been Integrated into General Public Schools, Since 1977, and General Education Classrooms, Since 1985. The Least Restrictive Environment (LRE) Mandate, Historical Origins of LRE, Recent LRE Initiatives, Including the Regular Education Initiative, and Relevant Research are Discussed. The Utility and Reliability of the Data are also Examined. Results Indicate that, Overall, Increases in Placements within General Public Schools have Occurred for Most Students with Disabilities. Increased Placements in General Education Classrooms have also Occurred and have been Even More Pronounced. Integration Patterns, However, have Varied Substantially Across Disabilities; Possible Reasons for these Differences are Presented.