History of Astronomy in Australia: Big-Impact Astronomy from World War II until the Lunar Landing (1945–1969)

Radio astronomy commenced in earnest after World War II, with Australia keenly engaged through the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research. At this juncture, Australia’s Commonwealth Solar Observatory expanded its portfolio from primarily studying solar phenomena to conducting stellar and extragalactic research. Subsequently, in the 1950s and 1960s, astronomy gradually became taught and researched in Australian universities. However, most scientific publications from this era of growth and discovery have no country of affiliation in their header information, making it hard to find the Australian astronomy articles from this period. In 2014, we used the then-new Astrophysics Data System (ADS) tool Bumblebee to overcome this challenge and track down the Australian-led astronomy papers published during the quarter of a century after World War II, from 1945 until the lunar landing in 1969. This required knowledge of the research centres and facilities operating at the time, which are briefly summarised herein. Based on citation counts—an objective, universally-used measure of scientific impact—we report on the Australian astronomy articles which had the biggest impact. We have identified the top-ten most-cited papers, and thus also their area of research, from five consecutive time-intervals across that blossoming quarter-century of astronomy. Moreover, we have invested a substantial amount of time researching and providing a small tribute to each of the 62 scientists involved, including several trail-blazing women. Furthermore, we provide an extensive list of references and point out many interesting historical connections and anecdotes.

The Inherent Logic in the Idea of the Multiverse

The idea of the multiverse, likely difficult to prove in traditional scientific ways, may be bolstered by two arguments from the field of logic. This article, contextualized by the metaphorical, non-logical approaches to the multiverse and situating itself within the history of astronomy, explicates these two arguments from logic. The first argument relates to the implicit illogical vanity in the assumption that our presently-known universe is special. In other words, it may be somewhat logical to embrace the history of deanthropomorphism more fully in the light of the Big Bang and the theory of cosmic inflation. The second argument suggests resolution to the long-standing philosophical and logical mysteries associated with the anthropic principle, as well as the attendant use of Ockham’s razor as a logical tool. The problem of evidence and falsifiability is briefly implicated, as well as some consequences for apologetics.

A tale of reviews in two history of science journals

This paper examines the role of book reviews in the discipline of the history of science by comparing their appearance in two periodicals, Isis, the flagship journal of the discipline that was founded in 1913, and the Journal for the History of Astronomy, founded in 1970 to serve a newly emerging, specialized subfield within the broader discipline. Our analysis of the reviews published in selected slices of time finds differing norms and reviewing practices within the two journals. Despite important changes during the past century in the conceptualization of the history of science and its research methods, reviewing practices in Isis remained remarkably consistent over time, with reviewers generally defending a fixed set of norms for “good” scholarship. More change appears in reviews of the Journal for the History of Astronomy, as its audience shifted from a mix of the laity, working astronomers, and historians to a specialized group of professional historians of astronomy. Scholarly norms, reflected in the reviews, shifted with these changes in readership. We conclude that book reviews offer rich sources for analyzing the evolution of scholarly disciplines and norms.

Participation of the Kharkiv Astronomical Observatory and its staff in the Soviet Space Program in 1960-ies

The article is devoted to the studying of documentary facts on the history of astronomy of the 1960s. Its purpose is to highlight the events related to the participation of the Kharkiv astronomical observatory in the Soviet space program in a certain period. The chronology of involvement of Kharkiv astronomers in programs on development and functioning of objects «V-67», «Е-7», «Е-8», «L-3», «М-69», creation of artificial Lunodrome, processing of photographic materials, that were obtained by spacecraft «Lunar orbiter 2», «Ranger 7», «Surveyor 1», «Luna-9», «Luna-12», «Luna-13», and «Zond-3» are considered. The directions of scientific research in projects «Altai», «Atlas», «Luks», and others of the Astronomical observatory of O.M. Gorky Kharkiv State University are analyzed. The main tasks that the Kharkiv astronomical observatory carried out in the 1960s were found next: photometric studies of details on the reverse side of the Moon; study of the physical, mechanical, and chemical properties of the lunar soil and its optical properties; photometric analysis of certain areas of the lunar surface; photometric calculations necessary for the design of orientation systems of automatic interplanetary stations; study of the luminosity of the lunar surface. The retro-information resources, which were firstly involved into consideration, provided a chronological sequence of events related to the participation of the University observatory in the development and functioning of artificial space objects during the given period. These resources helped to specify the achievements of Kharkiv astronomers in the Soviet program of space exploration and to prove (or clarify) some little-known facts.

Trust in Glass: Negotiating the Purchase of the Object Glass for the Airy Transit Circle

The Airy Transit Circle of the Royal Observatory, Greenwich is one of the most important instruments in the history of astronomy, navigation and time distribution. However, there has been very little research done on the history of the instrument. This article examines how the purchase of the object glass for the Airy Transit Circle involved active negotiations between George Biddell Airy and three different opticians: Georg Merz, Noel Paymal Lerebours, and William Simms. The article also shows the involvement of John Herschel and Richard Sheepshanks in Airy’s decision making process. By highlighting the presence of these individuals, the article shows how Airy’s trust and distrust in different instrument makers influenced his choice of supplier for the object glass of the Airy Transit Circle.

José Monteiro da Rocha (1734–1819) and His 1782 Work on the Determination of Comet Orbits

In 1782 José Monteiro da Rocha, astronomer and professor at the University of Coimbra, presented, in a public session of the Royal Academy of Sciences of Lisbon, a memoire on the problem of the determination of the orbits of comets. Only in 1799 would the “ Determinação das Orbitas dos Cometas” (Determination of the orbits of comets) be published in the Academy’s memoires. In that work, Monteiro da Rocha presents a method for solving the problem of the determination of the parabolic orbit of a comet making use of three observations. Monteiro da Rocha’s method is essentially the same as the method proposed by Olbers and published under von Zach’s sponsorship 2 years before, in 1797. Having been written and published in Portuguese was certainly a hindrance for its dissemination among the international astronomical community. In this paper, we intend to present Monteiro da Rocha’s method and try to explain to what extent we can justify Gomes Teixeira’s assertion that Monteiro da Rocha and Olbers must figure together in the history of astronomy, as the first inventors of a practical and easy method for the determination of parabolic orbits of comets.

Adam Smith and the problem of unintended consequences

Over the years, libraries have accumulated an enormous number of books concerning the work of Adam Smith. Yet, research covering the methodology adopted by the great Scot occupies very little space. This is probably due to the fact that, while Smith was an all-round scholar, specialisation in research activity has progressively reduced the scope of knowledge of each of us. It is therefore rare to find one researcher covering Smith’s entire opus. If, however, we manage to overcome the barriers of specialisation, it is possible to perceive a common denominator that holds the various phases of Smith’s activity together. This denominator is methodological in nature. From his History of astronomy, Smith set himself the problem of the unintended consequences of intentional human actions. He understood that looking at everything that happens as a direct outcome of human will or divine will prevents us from seeing that there is a ‘third person’ that we must take into account: social interaction – that is to say, the process of co-adaptation of individual plans from which, without any design on our part, our rules and institutions are born. Attention to unintended consequences is present in every one of Smith’s works, and it touches on topics ranging from the origin of moral rules to the formation of the self, and from social cooperation to the delimitation of the sphere of intervention of public power.

Chile: A Center of Global Astronomy, 1850–2019

By 2020, it is expected that approximately 70 % of the world’s surface astronomical observation will be located in Chile, considering both optical and infrared telescopes, belonging to international institutions. How did this happen? Can we explain the overwhelming importance of astronomy in this southern country only because of its geography? This process began when scientists from Europe, the United States, and the Soviet Union went to Chile in the 1960s, and each one of them decided to build a massive observatory in the country. The atmospheric conditions certainly had a role in these decisions, but they were also related to Cold War politics and, indirectly, to the previous history of astronomy in Chile. The international dimension of astronomy in Chile had been preset since the mid-19th century, when the first modern astronomy initiative took place. An American expedition built the first observatory, which later became the National Astronomical Observatory. By the early 20th century, another American expedition had arrived in Chile, and this one stayed for more than twenty years. Decades later, the global dimension of astronomy took the decisive step in the southern country and set the milestone for the development in the hands of Europeans, Americans and Soviets. In the process, Chileans became involved with astronomy, trying to promote science, the country’s international relations, and to grasp the attractions of modernity.