The 2020 glacial lake outburst flood at Jinwuco, Tibet: causes, impacts, and implications for hazard and risk assessment

We analyze and reconstruct a recent glacial lake outburst flood (GLOF) process chain on 26 June 2020, involving the moraine-dammed proglacial lake – Jinwuco (30.356∘ N, 93.631∘ E) in eastern Nyainqentanglha, Tibet, China. Satellite images reveal that from 1965 to 2020, the surface area of Jinwuco has expanded by 0.2 km2 (+56 %) to 0.56 km2 and subsequently decreased to 0.26 km2 (−54 %) after the GLOF. Estimates based on topographic reconstruction and sets of published empirical relationships indicate that the GLOF had a volume of 10 million cubic meters, an average breach time of 0.62 h, and an average peak discharge of 5602 m3/s at the dam. Based on pre- and post-event high-resolution satellite scenes, we identified a large debris landslide originating from western lateral moraine that was most likely triggered by extremely heavy, south-Asian-monsoon-associated rainfall in June 2020. We back-calculate part of the GLOF process chain, using the GIS-based open-source numerical simulation tool r.avaflow. Two scenarios are considered, assuming a debris-landslide-induced impact wave with overtopping and resulting retrogressive erosion of the moraine dam (Scenario A), as well as retrogressive erosion without a major impact wave (Scenario B). Both scenarios are in line with empirically derived ranges of peak discharge and breach time. The breaching process is characterized by a slower onset and a resulting delay in Scenario B compared to Scenario A. Comparison of the simulation results with field evidence points towards Scenario B, with a peak discharge of 4600 m3/s. There were no casualties from this GLOF, but it caused severe destruction of infrastructure (e.g., roads and bridges) and property losses in downstream areas. Given the clear role of continued glacial retreat in destabilizing the adjacent lateral moraine slopes and directly enabling the landslide to deposit into the expanding lake body, the GLOF process chain can be plausibly linked to anthropogenic climate change, while downstream consequences have been enhanced by the development of infrastructure on exposed flood plains. Such process chains could become more frequent under a warmer and wetter future climate, calling for comprehensive and forward-looking risk reduction planning.

Experimental and numerical investigation of hybrid armor against a ballistic impact

PurposeThe main challenge in preparing body armor is achieving a high protection level by using lightweight materials with minimum cost.Design/methodology/approachIn this study, a three-hybrid multilayered armor system is prepared for protection against a ballistic impact wave. These armor systems consist of glass or ceramic tile as a front layer followed by three intermediate layers made of woven fiber reinforced polymer composites and a back layer made of either aluminum or polypropylene.FindingsAll armor systems were successful in impeding the projectile from perforating, that is materials selection played an important role in stopping the ballistic impact wave. Almost an identical ballistic behavior was recorded between the experimental and numerical simulation by using ANSYS AUTODYN which means that the simulation could be used in advance to reduce the time required for practical experiments and the cost of using materials in experimental tests will be lessened. The effect of projectile geometry also had been studied, and it showed a noticeable role in changing ballistic behavior.Originality/valueThe originality of this research is in using carbon and glass fiber which are woven together in addition to adding polypropylene layers in armor preparation.

Landslide-GLOF cascade at the expanding Jinwuco in Tibet, 2020: a clear consequence of anthropogenic climate change

<p>Glacial Lake Outburst Floods (GLOFs) are amongst the most common and high-magnitude natural hydrological disasters in high-mountain regions that have resulted in severe casualties and socioeconomic losses over the last century. Here, we integrate various data and methods to analyse and reconstruct the GLOF process chain involving the moraine-dammed proglacial lake ‒ Jinwuco (30.356°N, 93.631°E) in eastern Nyainqentanglha, Tibet, China, which occurred on 26<sup>th</sup> June 2020. This lake underwent rapid expansion in area from 0.2 km<sup>2</sup> to 0.56 km<sup>2</sup> (1965-2020), and subsequently shrank to 0.26 km<sup>2</sup> after the GLOF. Topographic reconstruction and empirical relationships indicate that the GLOF had a volume of 10 million m<sup>3</sup>, an average breach time of 0.62 hours, and an average peak discharge of 5,390 m<sup>3</sup>/s at the dam. Pre- and post-event high-resolution satellite scenes reveal a large progressive debris landslide originating from western lateral moraine. This landslide which occurred 5-17 days before the GLOF was most likely triggered by extremely heavy, south Asian monsoon-associated rainfall in June. The time lag between the landslide and the GLOF suggests that pre-weakening of the dam due to landslide-induced outflow pushed the system towards a tipping point, that was finally exceeded following subsequent rainfall, snowmelt, a secondary landslide, or calving of ice into the lake. We back-calculate a part of the GLOF process chain, using the GIS-based open source numerical simulation tool r.avaflow, considering two scenarios: Scenario A - a debris landslide-induced impact wave with overtopping and resulting retrogressive erosion of the moraine dam; and Scenario B - retrogressive erosion due to pre-weakening of the dam without a major impact wave. Both back-calculated scenarios yield plausible results which are in line with empirically derived ranges of peak discharge and breach time. The breaching process is characterized by a slower onset and a resulting delay in Scenario B, compared to Scenario A. Our evidence, however, points towards Scenario B. The 2020 Jinwuco GLOF caused severe destruction of infrastructure (e.g. roads and bridges) and property losses in downstream areas (no fatalities were reported).</p><p>This study corroborates the clear role of continued glacial retreat in destabilizing the adjacent lateral moraine slopes, and directly enabling the landslide to deposit into the expanding lake body. As such, the GLOF process chain can be robustly attributable to anthropogenic climate change, while downstream consequences have been driven by recent development of infrastructure on exposed flood plains. Such glacial lake related process chains could become more frequent under a warmer and wetter future climate, calling for comprehensive and forward-looking risk reduction planning. We anticipate our findings will provide critical new process understanding on GLOF triggering mechanisms and these new insights will improve GLOF hazard and risk assessment frameworks, highlighting the need to consider both complex instantaneous and gradual process chains.</p><p> </p>

The 2020 glacial lake outburst flood at Jinwuco, Tibet: causes, impacts, and implications for hazard and risk assessment

We analyze and reconstruct a recent Glacial Lake Outburst Flood (GLOF) process chain on 26 June 2020, involving the moraine-dammed proglacial lake Jinwuco (30.356° N, 93.631° E) in eastern Nyainqentanglha, Tibet, China. Satellite images reveal that from 1965 to 2020, the surface area of Jinwuco has expanded by 0.2 km2 (+56 %) to 0.56 km2, and subsequently decreased to 0.26 km2 (‒54 %) after the GLOF. Estimates based on topographic reconstruction and sets of published empirical relationships indicate that the GLOF had a volume of 10 million m3, an average breach time of 0.62 hours, and an average peak discharge of 5,390 m3/s at the dam. Based on pre- and post-event high-resolution satellite scenes, we identified a large progressive debris landslide originating from western lateral moraine, having occurred 5–17 days before the GLOF. This landslide was most likely triggered by extremely heavy, south Asian monsoon-associated rainfall in June. The time lag between the landslide and the GLOF suggests that pre-weakening of the dam due to landslide-induced outflow pushed the system towards a tipping point, that was finally exceeded following subsequent rainfall, snowmelt, a secondary landslide, or calving of ice into the lake. We back-calculate part of the GLOF process chain, using the GIS-based open source numerical simulation tool r.avaflow. Two scenarios are considered, assuming a debris landslide-induced impact wave with overtopping and resulting retrogressive erosion of the moraine dam (Scenario A), and retrogressive erosion due to pre-weakening of the dam without a major impact wave (Scenario B). Both scenarios yield plausible results which are in line with empirically derived ranges of peak discharge and breach time. The breaching process is characterized by a slower onset and a resulting delay in Scenario B, compared to Scenario A. Evidence, however, points towards Scenario B as a more realistic possibility. There were no casualties from this GLOF but it caused severe destruction of infrastructure (e.g. roads and bridges) and property losses in downstream areas. Given the clear role of continued glacial retreat in destabilizing the adjacent lateral moraine slopes, and directly enabling the landslide to deposit into the expanding lake body, the GLOF process chain under Scenario B can be robustly attributable to anthropogenic climate change, while downstream consequences have been enhanced by the development of infrastructure on exposed flood plains. Such process chains could become more frequent under a warmer and wetter future climate, calling for comprehensive and forward-looking risk reduction planning.

Applicability of the Goda–Takahashi Wave Load Formula for Vertical Slender Hydraulic Structures

Vertical slender hydraulic structures such as sluices, navigation locks, or storm-surge barriers are often dynamically loaded by waves. For a safe and economic design, an accurate description of the wave loads is needed. A widely used formula for this purpose is the Goda–Takahashi wave load formula (GT). It was derived for the assessment of gravity-based caisson breakwaters. Due to its many advantages, the formula is also often employed for the assessment of vertical slender hydraulic structures, although its applicability to those type of structures was never fully demonstrated. This study provides insights in the applicability of GT for vertical slender hydraulic structures. This is done based on a literature review on the historical backgrounds of GT, and an investigation of several case-studies. In the case-studies, the equivalent-static wave loads for caisson breakwaters in scope of GT are compared with those for vertical slender hydraulic structures. The results show that GT can safely be applied for vertical slender hydraulic structures loaded by pulsating wave loads, but that systematic over- or under-estimations are expected for breaking or impact wave loads. For individual cases, differences up to 200% were obtained. These large over- or under-estimations underline the need for an improvement of the current design tools for vertical slender hydraulic structures loaded by breaking or impact wave loads.