The Development and Validation of the Christian Environmentalism Scale (CES) from a Philippine Sample

Responding to emerging ecotheologies, we articulated a new environmental construct distinct from previous environmental measures which largely follow developmental models. In the present study we developed and reviewed the psychometric properties of the Christian Environmentalism Scale (CES) initially in three dimensions from 970 youth participants in the Philippines. Study design included exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis for data reduction and best fit model analysis. CES is a unidimensional 15-item measure with a high internal consistency (Cronbach’s alpha = .95) score and adequate results for best fit model. CES had significant associations with pro-environment and religious attitude scales indicating initial evidence of convergent validity.

Rediscovery of Early Twentieth-Century Ecotheology

In this article, I examine the early history of Christian environmentalism (“ecotheology”) in the twentieth century. I delineate four strands of early ecotheology: agrarian ecotheology; social Christianity; British contributions; and “post-liberal” foundations for later ecotheological movements. I show that ecotheology was a slowly-rising movement, which had notable proponents. I argue that these early ecotheologians are significant for several reasons. First, these writings support the view that there are momentous roots of environmentalism in the late 19th and early 20th Century. Second, these texts reveal important information about the relation of Christian and other environmentalism. Third, early ecotheologians contributed to discussion about themes which would later form distinctive environmental disciplines, such as environmental aesthetics, education, ethics, history and philosophy. Their thoughts offer interesting reflections pointing to these fields. Fourth, the contributions by the early ecotheologians are not only historically interesting, but they have relevance for the current discussion. These theologians were in a special position to notice the major changes brought by technological development in the twentieth century and they provided important critical reflections about these issues. Because they developed their thought independently, they display creative thinking, although often in an unfinished manner.

Recognition and Ecological Theology

This article explores the possibilities offered by theories of recognition and identity politics for a better understanding of religious – in this case, Christian – environmentalism. Insights related to recognition are gleaned from literature in ecological theology. Themes for further research and possibilities for practical adaptation are explored. It is argued that theories of recognition help to understand the dynamics related to processes where a certain group asks for more recognition of nature. Identity questions and developments in environmentalism are clarified by an understanding of what happens when partial recognition is granted. The role of mutuality as a basis for recognition is widened by Arto Laitinen’s proposal for recognition as “adequate regard” for something, i.e. for an ecosystem. The complex relations between humans and non-human nature are explored through such themes as reciprocity and the question of “voices” of nature. Creaturely difference and the role of seeing a “face” in nature are discussed in relation to recognition. The significance of place and environmental conditions for recognition are probed. Special attention is given to Andrew Dobson’s application of Nancy Frazer’s theory of transformative recognition to environmental matters, which offers new ways of understanding the role of non-human nature in politics, ethics and discussions on justice.

Christian Mission and Environmental Issues: An Evangelical Reflection La mission chrétienne et les questions d'environnement : une réflexion évangélique Christliche Mission und Umweltfragen: Eine evangelikale Überlegung Misión cristiana y temas ambientales: Una reflexión evangélica

It remains true that an objective overview of Christian environmentalism – both theologically and practically – would see the contribution of evangelical mission agencies as fairly peripheral (a notable exception being an organisation called A Rocha). However, this paper argues that in terms both of a biblical theology of "five acts" (creation, fall, Israel, Jesus, and the present and future age) and also of evangelical culture (characterised by the "Bebbington quadrilateral" of biblicism, crucicentrism, conversionism and activism) there are good reasons why evangelicalism should engage with environment, and growing evidence that it is beginning to do so. Some of the most significant thinkers and some of the largest mission agencies have begun asking key questions about God's mission towards the whole creation and ours. The next few years will be critical as to whether evangelicals accept the challenge to rethink and rework mission to take God's creation seriously, or whether they choose to remain in an other-worldly sub-culture. Il est vrai qu'un survol objectif du point de vue chrétien sur l'environnement – à la fois théologique et pratique – considérerait l'apport des organismes missionnaires évangéliques comme assez périphérique (à l'exception notable de celui de l'Association A Rocha). Cet article soutient cependant que du point de vue des « cinq actes » (la création, la chute, Israël, Jésus et l'âge présent et à venir) comme de celui de la culture évangélique (caractérisée par le « quadrilatère de Bebbington » que sont l'axe biblique, l'axe de la Croix, l'axe de la conversion et celui de l'engagement) il y aurait de bonnes raisons pour que les évangéliques s'engagent dans les questions d'environnement et des preuves que c'est en fait de plus en plus le cas. Quelques-uns des principaux penseurs et certains des organismes les plus importants ont commencé à poser des questions cruciales sur la mission de Dieu pour la création tout entière et la nôtre. Les années à venir vont être décisives pour voir si les évangéliques acceptent ce défi de repenser et de refaire la mission en prenant au sérieux la création de Dieu, ou s'ils choisissent de se cantonner dans une subculture de l'autre monde. Es ist immer noch richtig, dass ein objektiver Überblick über das christliche Engagement in Umweltfragen – sowohl theologisch wie auch praktisch – den Beitrag der evangelikalen Missionsgesellschaften für ziemlich unbedeutend einschätzen würde (eine Organisation, die A Rocha heißt, ist eine bemerkenswerte Ausnahme). Dieser Artikel behauptet, dass es sowohl von Seiten der biblischen Theologie der "fünf Akte" (Schöpfung, Sündenfall, Israel, Jesus, Gegenwart und Zukunft) als auch der evangelikalen Kultur (die sich im ,,Bebbington Ring" von Biblizismus, Konzentration auf das Kreuz, Bekehrung und Aktivismus ausdrückt) gute Gründe gibt, warum sich der Evangelikalismus in Umweltfragen engagieren sollte; es gibt auch immer mehr Anzeichen, dass das tatsächlich schon geschieht. Einige der bedeutendsten Denker und der größten Missionsgesellschaften haben begonnen, grundlegende Fragen über die Mission Gottes der ganzen Schöpfung gegenüber und unsere Mission zu stellen. Die nächsten paar Jahre werden bedeutend sein für die Akzeptanz der Evangelikalen, diese Herausforderung anzunehmen, die Mission neu zu überdenken und auszuarbeiten, um so die Schöpfung Gottes ernstzunehmen – oder sich dafür zu entscheiden, eine Subkultur zu bleiben, die auf die andere Welt ausgerichtet ist. Sigue siendo cierto que un resumen objetivo de una ecología cristiana – tanto teológica como prácticamente – vería el aporte de agencias misioneras evangelicales como bastante marginales (una excepción importante sería una organización que se llama A Rocha [La Roca]). Sin embargo, este artículo propone que en términos tanto de la teología bíblica de los "cinco hechos" (creación, pecado, Israel, Jesús, el tiempo presente y el futuro) como de una cultura evangelical (caracterizada por el "cuadrilátero de Bebbington": centrado en la Biblia, en la cruz, en la conversión y el activismo) existen buenas razones por qué el evangelicalismo debería comprometerse con el ambiente, y que hay crecientes pruebas de que esto comienza a ser realidad. Algunos de los pensadores más significativos y algunas de las agencias misioneras más grandes han comenzado a plantearse preguntas claves sobre la misión de Dios hacia la creación entera y nuestra misión. Los próximos años serán decisivos para que los evangelicales acepten la tarea de repensar y retrabajar la misión para tomar en serio la creación de Dios, o para que opten a quedarse como una subcultura orientada hacia el otro mundo.