How Does Task Presentation Impact Motor Inhibition Performance in Young Children?

Peg tapping tasks are commonly used as a measure of inhibitory skill in young children. However, differences in the way the task is presented may influence children’s performance. For example, if a peg tapping task is presented at regular intervals, children can entrain to the presentation pulse, which may in turn support their performance. This study assessed how speed and regularity of presentation may support or impair children’s responses. An experimenter was filmed delivering the tapping task at two different speeds (120 bpm/3,000 ms per trial and 150 bpm/2,400 ms per trial). Additionally, they were filmed delivering the task at regular intervals (i.e., the onset of each trial was predictable), or at irregular intervals (the onset of each trial was unpredictable). N = 103 children aged between 5 and 6 years old were tested on the task. They completed one block with 20 regular interval trials and another block with 20 irregular interval trials. Block presentation order was randomized. Children who achieved over 90% accuracy on the task were then presented with two more blocks at 150 bpm. Children’s response accuracy was measured. Our results show a difference in children’s accuracy across all conditions with trials presented in an irregular manner producing poorer performance on the task. The study demonstrates how speed and regularity of presentation can affect children’s scores on a tapping task used to measure inhibition. Demands on working memory, motor ability, and speed of processing are all affected by adjustments in presentation. Entrainment to a pulse is also a potential mechanism employed by children to support their performance on this task.

Factors Leading to Early Embryonic Death

Early embryonic death is defined as the loss of embryo or conceptus which occurs between fertilization and 15 days post insemination. Early embryonic death leads to reproductive failure in animals resulting in reduced pregnancy rates, slower genetic improvement and substantial impact on farm profitability. Early embryonic death is an eloquent limiting factor for the completion of pregnancy in animals (Inskeep and Dailey, 2005). Incidence of embryonic losses is usually higher than perinatal losses. Notably, fetal development may or may not have affected by maternal infections during pregnancy (Givens and Marley, 2008). Early embryonic death occurs before the fetal calcification. Complete resorption of the embryo is usually seen during early embryonic death (Wrathall, 1975). Embryonic or fetal death leads to resorption, mummification, maceration or abortion. Gestational age, cause of death, and source of progesterone for pregnancy maintenance are the factors that impacts the outcome of the embryonic or fetal death (Givens and Marley, 2008). Most often, early embryonic death, post implantation is due to the uterine environment rather than fetal development (Clark et al., 1986). Dead embryos, between the time of implantation and calcification, are also resorbed. If the entire litter is lost, the dam will return to service at an irregular interval, usually 5 to 10 days post pregnancy loss (Wrathall, 1975) and pregnancy is continued if even a single number of embryo remains (Christianson, 1992). In a farm or within a particular litter, more than one type of embryo or fetal death can be found, but accurate classification is important for further better investigation (Christianson, 1992). Diagnosis is usually very difficult; as the agent or cause of embryonic death is no longer present while investigation is taking place. So, it is important to be aware of variety of causes of embryonic death that helps to rule out the particular problems that can be diagnosed and treated (Christianson, 1992). Proper history such as vaccination status, feed changes, housing, environmental temperature and so forth should be taken, that helps to narrow down the potential list of problems to consider and root cause can be found.

Certain Types of Interval-Valued Fuzzy Graphs

We propose certain types of interval-valued fuzzy graphs including balanced interval-valued fuzzy graphs, neighbourly irregular interval-valued fuzzy graphs, neighbourly total irregular interval-valued fuzzy graphs, highly irregular interval-valued fuzzy graphs, and highly total irregular interval-valued fuzzy graphs. Some interesting properties associated with these new interval-valued fuzzy graphs are investigated, and necessary and sufficient conditions under which neighbourly irregular and highly irregular interval-valued fuzzy graphs are equivalent are obtained. We also describe the relationship between intuitionistic fuzzy graphs and interval-valued fuzzy graphs.