Spaced training enhances equine learning performance

This field experiment examined whether the well-documented benefit of spaced over massed training for humans and other animals generalizes to horses. Twenty-nine randomly selected horses (Equus ferus caballus) repeatedly encountered a novel obstacle-crossing task while under saddle. Horses were randomly assigned to the spaced-training condition (2 min work, 2 min rest, 2 min work, 2 min rest) or the massed-training condition (4 min work, 4 min rest). Total training time per session and total rest per session were held constant. Days between sessions (M = 3) were held as consistent as possible given the constraints of conducting research on a working ranch and safety–threatening weather conditions. During each training session, the same hypothesis-naïve rider shaped horses to cross a novel obstacle. Fifteen of 16 horses in the spaced-training condition reached performance criterion (94% success) while only 5 of 13 horses in the massed-training condition reached performance criterion (39% success). Horses in the spaced-training condition also initiated their first obstacle-crossing faster than horses in the massed-training condition and were faster at completing eight crossings than horses in the massed-training condition. Overall, task acquisition was higher for horses undergoing spaced training despite both groups experiencing the same total work and rest time per session. These findings generalize the learning-performance benefit observed in human spaced practice to horses and offer applied benefit to equine training.

Gamified Dual-Task Training for Individuals with Parkinson Disease: An Exploratory Study on Feasibility, Safety, and Efficacy

Objectives: The feasibility and safety of the use of neurorehabilitation technology (SMARTfit® Trainer system) by physical therapists in implementing a gamified physical-cognitive dual-task training (DTT) paradigm for individuals with Parkinson disease (IWPD) was examined. Additionally, the efficacy of this gamified DTT was compared to physical single-task training (STT), both of which were optimized using physio-motivational factors, on changes in motor and cognitive outcomes, and self-assessed disability in activities of daily living. Methods: Using a cross-over study design, eight participants with mild-to-moderate idiopathic PD (including one with mild cognitive impairment) completed both training conditions (i.e., gamified DTT and STT). For each training condition, the participants attended 2–3 sessions per week over 8.8 weeks on average, with the total amount of training being equivalent to 24 1 h sessions. A washout period averaging 11.5 weeks was inserted between training conditions. STT consisted of task-oriented training involving the practice of functional tasks, whereas for gamified DTT, the same task-oriented training was implemented simultaneously with varied cognitive games using an interactive training system (SMARTfit®). Both training conditions were optimized through continual adaptation to ensure the use of challenging tasks and to provide autonomy support. Training hours, heart rate, and adverse events were measured to assess the feasibility and safety of the gamified DTT protocol. Motor and cognitive function as well as perceived disability were assessed before and after each training condition. Results: Gamified DTT was feasible and safe for this cohort. Across participants, significant improvements were achieved in more outcome measures after gamified DTT than they were after STT. Individually, participants with specific demographic and clinical characteristics responded differently to the two training conditions. Conclusion: Physical therapists’ utilization of technology with versatile hardware configurations and customizable software application selections was feasible and safe for implementing a tailor-made intervention and for adapting it in real-time to meet the individualized, evolving training needs of IWPD. Specifically in comparison to optimized STT, there was a preliminary signal of efficacy for gamified DTT in improving motor and cognitive function as well as perceived disability in IWPD.

The Feasibility and Acceptability of Delivering Pivotal Response Treatment for Autism Spectrum Disorder via Telehealth: A Pilot Study (Preprint)

BACKGROUND Pivotal Response Treatment (PRT), an evidence-based and parent-delivered intervention, is designed to improve social communication in individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). OBJECTIVE To assess the feasibility, acceptability, and clinical effects of an online model of PRT delivered via MindNest Health that aims to provide self-directed and engaging online modules, real-time coaching and feedback, and accessible stepped-care to large populations of parents seeking resources for their children with ASD. METHODS Male and female children, ages 2-7 years old with single-word to phrase-level speech, were eligible to participate in the study. Families were randomized to the online parent training condition or control condition. The online component of the intervention consisted of eight 20-minute online courses of content describing parent training principles in PRT. Four 1-hour videoconferences were held after course 1, course 3, course 5, and course 8. Parents were given 1-2 weeks to complete each course. Parents completed the Client Expectancies Questionnaire (CCQ) at Week 2 and endpoint, as well as the Behavioral Intervention Rating Scale (BIRS) at endpoint to assess parental expectancies and treatment acceptability and effectiveness. RESULTS 9 of 14 subjects completed the study curriculum in the online parent training condition, and 6 of 12 subjects completed the control condition. A total of 58% subjects completed study curriculum by study closure. Within the online parent training condition, there was a significant increase in mean CCQ Total Scores from 25.38 ± 3.25 at baseline to 27.5 ± 3.74 at endpoint (P = .04), mean CCQ Confidence Scores from 6.0 ± 1.07 at baseline to 6.75 ± 0.89 at endpoint (P = .02), and mean CCQ Other Improvement Scores 5.25 ± 0.89 at baseline to 6.25 ± 1.28 at endpoint (P = .009). Within the control condition, a modest increase in CCQ scores existed (Confidence △M = +.25; Recommend △M = +.25; Total Score △M = +.50), but no significant results were found (Confidence P = .38; Recommend P = .36; Total Score P = .43). Out of the eleven parents that completed the BIRS at endpoint, 83% parents endorsed they slightly agree or agree with over 93% of the Acceptability factor items on the BIRS. CONCLUSIONS The feasibility of this online treatment is endorsed by the high rate of online module completion and attendance to videoconferences within the online parent training group. Acceptability of treatment is supported by strong ratings on the CCQ and significant improvements in scores as well as strong ratings on the BIRS. This study’s small sample size limits the conclusions that can be drawn, however, the PRT MindNest Health platform holds promise to support parents of children with ASD who are unable to access traditional, in-person parent-mediated intervention for their child.

General and Specific Effects of Stereo Learning

Technological advancements in virtual reality challenge the human vision, especially stereopsis, a function, which characterizes how two eyes coordinate to form a unified three-dimensional (3D) representation of the external world and is found to be deficient in 30% of the normal population. Although a few previous studies have consistently found that the perceptual learning of stereopsis significantly improved stereoacuity, an underlying mechanism of stereo learning remains heavily debated. Here, we trained subjects with normal stereo vision (assessed with the FLY Stereo Acuity Test) to judge stereopsis containing three types of binocular disparity orders (i.e., zero-, first-, and second-order), aiming to systematically examine the characteristics and plasticity of stereo learning. Thirty subjects were randomly assigned to the three training groups (each for the zero-, first-, or second-order disparity separately). The disparity thresholds were measured before and after training. The disparity threshold was measured in 10 additional control subjects only at the pre- and post-training phase. Stereoscopic images were displayed through a shutter goggle, which is synchronized to a monitor. We found that the training significantly improved the zero-, first-, and second-order disparity threshold by 52.42, 36.28, and 14.9% in the zero-order training condition; 30.44, 63.74, and 21.07% in the first-order training condition; and 30.77, 25.19, and 75.12% in the second-order training condition, respectively. There was no significant improvement in the control group. Interestingly, the greatest improvements in the first- and second-order disparity threshold were found in the corresponding disparity training group; on the contrary, the improvements in the zero-order disparity threshold were comparable across all the three disparity training groups. Our findings demonstrated both general (related to the zero-order disparity) and specific improvements (related to the first- and second-order disparity) in stereo learning, suggesting that stereo training occurs at different visual processing stages and its effects might depend on the specific training sites.

Experimental Manipulation of Processing Style: Impact on Interpretive Bias, Problem Solving, and Worry in Individuals with Generalized Anxiety Disorder

The present study investigated whether individuals with generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) could be trained to adopt an abstract or concrete processing style and the impact of processing style training on GAD symptoms and cognitive processes, including an interpretation bias, negative problem solving orientation, poor problem solving, and worry. Participants (N=47) were trained to adopt an abstract or concrete processing style, and outcome measures were completed at posttraining and 1 week follow-up. At posttraining, processing style training was effective in inducing an abstract or concrete processing style. In addition, at posttraining, the concrete training condition reported reduced concern with ambiguous scenarios and produced problem solutions that were rated as more effective compared with the abstract training condition. At follow-up, there was no difference between training conditions on processing style and associated GAD symptoms and cognitive processes. Study limitations and future directions are discussed.

Experimental Manipulation of Processing Style: Impact on Interpretive Bias, Problem Solving, and Worry in Individuals with Generalized Anxiety Disorder

The present study investigated whether individuals with generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) could be trained to adopt an abstract or concrete processing style and the impact of processing style training on GAD symptoms and cognitive processes, including an interpretation bias, negative problem solving orientation, poor problem solving, and worry. Participants (N=47) were trained to adopt an abstract or concrete processing style, and outcome measures were completed at posttraining and 1 week follow-up. At posttraining, processing style training was effective in inducing an abstract or concrete processing style. In addition, at posttraining, the concrete training condition reported reduced concern with ambiguous scenarios and produced problem solutions that were rated as more effective compared with the abstract training condition. At follow-up, there was no difference between training conditions on processing style and associated GAD symptoms and cognitive processes. Study limitations and future directions are discussed.

Modification of Interpretive Bias: Impact on Anxiety Sensitivity, Information Processing and Response to Induced Bodily Sensations

Anxiety Sensitivity (AS) is the fear of normal, arousal-related bodily sensations due to the belief that they have negative consequences. High AS is associated with interpretive biases whereby normal bodily sensations are perceived as threatening. Research shows that interpretive biases can be modified through cognitive training. In the present study, the impact of interpretation training on cognitive processes and behaviour was examined in people with high AS. Thirty-four participants were assigned to either a training condition designed to induce a benign interpretive bias, or a “sham” condition designed to have no effect on existing biases. Participants in the training condition reported significant decreases in overall AS and fear of the physical consequences of anxiety. Interpretive bias measures yielded mixed findings. Both conditions displayed decreased negative interpretations of explanations of physical sensations, but only the training condition displayed decreased interpretations of specific, negative explanations of physical sensations. Theoretical implications are discussed.

Modification of Interpretive Bias: Impact on Anxiety Sensitivity, Information Processing and Response to Induced Bodily Sensations

Anxiety Sensitivity (AS) is the fear of normal, arousal-related bodily sensations due to the belief that they have negative consequences. High AS is associated with interpretive biases whereby normal bodily sensations are perceived as threatening. Research shows that interpretive biases can be modified through cognitive training. In the present study, the impact of interpretation training on cognitive processes and behaviour was examined in people with high AS. Thirty-four participants were assigned to either a training condition designed to induce a benign interpretive bias, or a “sham” condition designed to have no effect on existing biases. Participants in the training condition reported significant decreases in overall AS and fear of the physical consequences of anxiety. Interpretive bias measures yielded mixed findings. Both conditions displayed decreased negative interpretations of explanations of physical sensations, but only the training condition displayed decreased interpretations of specific, negative explanations of physical sensations. Theoretical implications are discussed.

Effects of autism acceptance training on explicit and implicit biases toward autism

Non-autistic adults often hold explicit and implicit biases toward autism that contribute to personal and professional challenges for autistic people. Although previous research indicates that non-autistic adults with higher autism knowledge and familiarity express more inclusionary attitudes, it remains unclear whether training programs designed to promote autism acceptance and understanding affect subsequent implicit and explicit biases toward autism. In this study, non-autistic adults ( N = 238) completed an autism acceptance training featuring factual information and engaging first-person narratives, a general mental health training not mentioning autism, or a no-training control, then responded to surveys assessing their autism knowledge, stigma, and impressions of autistic adults, and completed a novel implicit association task about autism. Non-autistic adults in the autism acceptance training condition reported more positive impressions of autistic adults, demonstrated fewer misconceptions and lower stigma about autism, endorsed higher expectations of autistic abilities, and expressed greater social interest in hypothetical and real autistic people. However, training had no effect on implicit biases, with non-autistic adults associating autism-related labels with unpleasant personal attributes regardless of training condition. These findings suggest that the autism acceptance training program in this study, designed to increase autism knowledge and familiarity among non-autistic people, holds promise for reducing explicit but not implicit biases toward autism. Lay abstract Autistic adults face prejudice from non-autistic people. They are often judged unfairly and left out of social activities because of their differences. This can make it difficult for autistic people to make friends and find jobs. Some training programs have tried to teach autistic people to act more like non-autistic people to help them gain acceptance. Fewer have focused on teaching non-autistic people how to be more autism friendly. In this study, we used a short training video that teaches people about autism. The video was created with the help of autistic adults and included clips of real autistic people. We found that non-autistic people who watched this video had better knowledge about autism and showed more autism-friendly attitudes than those who watched a video about mental health or those who did not watch any video. They were more open to having a relationship with an autistic person and had more positive beliefs about autism. However, our video did not affect people’s unconscious attitudes about autism. People in our study connected autism with unpleasant traits, even if they had watched the autism training video. This suggests that teaching non-autistic people about autism may promote more autism-friendly attitudes, but some beliefs may be harder to change.