From Catastrophe to Recovery: Stories of Fishery Management Success

<i>Abstract.</i>—This chapter provides the history of the Caspian Kutum <i>Rutilus kutum</i> (Kamensky 1901) fishery in the Caspian Sea, analyzes long-term changes of stock condition and the main causes of fluctuations in abundance, and describes conservation measures that allowed resumption of fishing. Caspian Kutum (Cyprinidae family) is an endemic, semi-anadromous, medium-sized fish, reaching 53–67 cm in total length (rarely 71 cm) and weighing up to 4.0 kg (rarely 5.0 kg). Commercially important fisheries occur in Russia, Azerbaijan, Iran, and Turkmenistan. Flesh and roe are enjoyed as food and have a high price in markets. Variability in sea level, construction of hydroelectric power plants on rivers, water irrigation withdrawals, industrial and domestic pollution, overfishing, and illegal fishing resulted in a sharp decline of Caspian Kutum abundance and resulted in a total ban on harvest in Russia between 1995 and 2004. In Iran, fishing for Caspian Kutum continued due to their stocking program. Conservation measures for Caspian Kutum stocks (e.g., listing in federal and local Red Data books, fishing ban, fight against illegal fishing), as well as an increase of artificial propagation in Iran, Azerbaijan, and Dagestan (Russia) during subsequent years, have allowed the recovery of stocks in Russian waters to 1990s levels as well as the resumption of fishing. The follow lessons may be applicable to fishery management programs elsewhere:

From Catastrophe to Recovery: Stories of Fishery Management Success

<i>Abstract</i>.—Fish population recoveries can result from ecosystem change in the absence of targeted restoration actions. In Lake Ontario, native Deepwater Sculpin <i>Myoxocephalus thompsonii</i> were common in the late 1800s, but by the mid-1900s the species was possibly extirpated. During this period, mineral nutrient inputs increased and piscivore abundance declined, which increased the abundance of the nonnative planktivores Alewife <i>Alosa pseudoharengus</i> and Rainbow Smelt <i>Osmerus mordax</i>. Deepwater Sculpin larvae are pelagic and vulnerable to predation by planktivores. Annual bottom trawl surveys did not capture Deepwater Sculpin from 1978 to 1995 (<i>n</i> = 6,666 tows) despite sampling appropriate habitat (trawl depths: 7–170 m). The absence of observations during this time resulted in an elevated conservation status for the species, but no restoration actions were initiated. In 1996, three individuals were caught in bottom trawls, the first observed since 1972. Since then, their abundance has increased, and in 2017, they were the second most abundant Lake Ontario prey fish. The food-web changes that occurred from 1970 through the 1990s contributed to this recovery. Alewife and Rainbow Smelt abundance declined during this period due to predation by stocked salmonids and legislation that reduced nutrient inputs and food web productivity. In the 1990s, proliferation of nonnative, filter-feeding dreissenid mussels dramatically increased water clarity. As light penetration increased, the early-spring depth distribution of Alewife and Rainbow Smelt shifted deeper, away from larval Deepwater Sculpin habitat. The intentional and unintentional changes that occurred in Lake Ontario were not targeted at Deepwater Sculpin restoration but resulted in conditions that favored the species’ recovery. While standard surveys documented the recovery, more diverse information (e.g., observations in deep habitats and early-life stages) would have improved our understanding of why the species recovered when it did. Annual Lake Ontario trawl surveys have collaboratively expanded their spatial extent and diversified habitat sampled, based on lessons learned from the Deepwater Sculpin recovery.

From Catastrophe to Recovery: Stories of Fishery Management Success

<i>Abstract</i>.—The Owens Pupfish <i>Cyprinodon radiosus</i> is a small fish (<6 cm [2.5 in]) in the killifish family once thought extinct but rediscovered in the early 1960s in Fish Slough in the Death Valley drainage area of eastern California, USA. At the time of discovery, the species was comprised of a single population of approximately 200 individuals. The species was listed as endangered on March 11, 1967 under the U.S. Endangered Species Preservation Act of 1966. During the summer of 1969, a spring that was feeding water to Fish Slough was discovered to have much reduced flow due to unusual precipitation patterns the previous 6 months and possibly water removals, and thus threatened complete extinction of the species. Quick actions by fish biologists prevented extinction by transporting the entire species in two buckets to nearby refuge waters similar to Fish Slough. The transplantation was successful, and six populations now exist 50 years later that each number from the hundreds to perhaps more than 10,000 fish. The species remains listed as endangered—but it did not go extinct!

From Catastrophe to Recovery: Stories of Fishery Management Success

<i>Abstract.</i>—Since the mid-1800s, human activities have increasingly dominated ecosystems within the Okanagan River basin, which spans the Canada–United States border between British Columbia and Washington State. Over the past 50 years, fisheries for anadromous salmon in the Okanagan River basin virtually disappeared as once abundant stocks, such as Sockeye Salmon <i>Oncorhynchus nerka</i>, declined to fewer than 10,000 adults returning annually (on average) in the 1990s. Threat assessments suggested degradation of freshwater habitat in the Columbia River basin as the general cause for the decline. However, recent record returns (2008–2016 average >200,000 adults) indicated surprising resilience and recovery. Review of recent stock management and restoration efforts focused on Okanagan Sockeye Salmon indicated that management actions and fortuitous events facilitated the restoration of salmon to levels exceeding recorded, historic maxima. Actions and events identified include (1) assessment to determine whether large increases in escapement provided evidence of historic underuse of spawning (Okanagan River) and rearing environment (Osoyoos Lake) capacities; (2) development of a decision support system to facilitate fish-friendly water management, which reduced losses of eggs or fry to density-independent events (Okanagan River and Lake); (3) a small contribution (<10% of total production) of hatchery-origin fish; and (4) a coincidental return to favorable marine conditions for Okanagan Sockeye Salmon. Recovery success also involved development of an ecosystem-based sustainability strategy incorporating a shared vision for dealing with human and natural system impacts on salmon from local (Okanagan River basin) to global (North Pacific Ocean) scales. Key elements that characterized efforts to restore Okanagan Sockeye Salmon were the development of ecosystem-based management (including elevated levels of engagement, cooperation, and collaboration among responsible parties to support a common cause); the creation of new knowledge of complex cause-and-effect ecological, economic, and cultural associations; and the creation of new resource management tools (e.g., models and decision support systems). Science-based collaboration to restore aquatic ecosystems and Okanagan salmon is an example of positive outcomes resulting from implementation of Canada’s 2005 Wild Salmon Policy.

From Catastrophe to Recovery: Stories of Fishery Management Success

Abstract.—Native golden trout of California’s upper Kern River basin have inspired anglers and scientists alike with their beauty, ecology, and evolutionary history. Three Rainbow Trout <i>Oncorhynchus mykiss</i> subspecies comprise the golden trout complex: California Golden Trout <i>O. m. aguabonita</i>, Little Kern Golden Trout <i>O. m. whitei</i>, and Kern River Rainbow Trout <i>O. m. gilberti</i>. This chapter focuses on restoration and management of the first two subspecies, California Golden Trout and Little Kern Golden Trout. Agency biologists, other scientists, and citizens have all worked for more than 100 years to protect and save these subspecies from a range of threats, some of fishery managers’ own making and some threats evolving over time. Major problems have included overharvest by anglers, overgrazing of habitat by livestock, competition and predation by nonnative Brown Trout <i>Salmo trutta</i> and Brook Trout <i>Salvelinus fontinalis</i>, and hybridization with introduced nonnative forms of Rainbow Trout subspecies; these factors drove both species perilously close to extinction by the late 1960s. Little Kern Golden Trout were listed as threatened in 1978 under the U.S. Federal Endangered Species Act. That same year, the federal government designated large portions of California Golden Trout and Little Kern Golden Trout native watersheds as the Golden Trout Wilderness. Management actions to prevent extinction and conserve these subspecies have included angling regulations, livestock grazing restrictions, barrier construction, chemical treatments to remove nonnative trout, and research to identify and quantify genetic introgression of nonnative Rainbow Trout genes into native golden trout populations. Restoration efforts have, thus far, averted extinction, allowed populations to rebound, and provided several important lessons on genetic management of closely related subspecies, including pitfalls of a zero-introgression target for conservation, the potential need to continue management indefinitely, being responsive to emerging threats, recognizing that barriers to upstream fish movement can be useful, the caveats of using hatcheries for conservation, the potential role of native trout donor populations to facilitate restoration, and the need to harness public and stakeholder understanding and support for species conservation.

From Catastrophe to Recovery: Stories of Fishery Management Success

<i>Abstract</i>.—Saginaw Bay is a large coolwater region of Lake Huron and Walleye <i>Sander vitreus</i> is the apex predator. From the time of first settlement to the mid-1940s, the bay’s Walleye population was the target of a loosely regulated commercial fishery characterized by periods of overharvest and recovery but was sustained for more than half a century at an average annual yield of about 495 metric tons. The fishery collapsed due to a series of year-class failures attributed to declining water quality, habitat degradation, and effects of invasive species. The degraded and collapsed condition lasted until the early 1980s. With improving water quality stemming from clean water legislation and the closure of the commercial fishery, a new period of improvement was achieved. Walleye fingerling stocking was implemented and a recreational fishery soon emerged. Research and assessment sought to monitor stock mortality, growth, and exploitation rates as well as contribution of stocked fish to the fishery. Recovery plans were drafted that sought to improve spawning habitat and improve survival of Walleye fry by creating a predation barrier to the predatory effects of the invasive Alewife <i>Alosa pseudoharengus</i> through increased Walleye stocking. A series of cascading food-web changes took place in Lake Huron, resulting in the sudden collapse of Alewives, and Walleye natural reproduction surged beginning in 2003. Walleye stocking was discontinued in 2006 and recovery targets were first achieved in 2009. Management and research shifted from recovery efforts to enhanced stock assessment efforts and modeling, a clear sign of success! Key lessons learned include (1) eliminating or at least reducing obstacles to reproduction (such as habitat and water quality) are essential first steps to laying the foundation for recovery, (2) maintaining populations (via of stocking in this instance) will help ensure that broodfish are available for spawning when conditions improve, (3) ecosystems are resilient and when released from stressors (Alewives in this instance) natural processes can resume, (4) great value exists in survey/assessment investment and long-term data sets for guiding restoration, and (5) resolve and commitment by natural resource professionals, administrators, and stakeholders is critical for sustaining restoration efforts and the investment they require.

From Catastrophe to Recovery: Stories of Fishery Management Success

<i>Abstract</i>.—The Lake Trout <i>Salvelinus namaycush</i> is a keystone species in the Laurentian Great Lakes that supported valuable fisheries throughout the basin until the 1950s. However, Lake Trout populations declined to near extirpation in nearly all of the lakes by the 1960s because of the combined effects of overfishing, Sea Lamprey <i>Petromyzon marinus</i> predation, and habitat degradation. To restore self-sustaining Lake Trout populations in Lake Superior, state, provincial, federal, and tribal agencies agreed to an interjurisdictional management framework that allowed them to articulate and institute (1) clear and common goals and actions for recovery, (2) early and intensive lakewide stocking of hatchery-reared Lake Trout to enhance failing stocks, (3) early and effective lakewide controls on mortality caused by Sea lampreys and fisheries, and (4) standardized lakewide evaluations of population trajectories and performance. Stocking was initiated in Lake Superior in 1950 and expanded after 1953, prior to effecting Sea Lamprey or fishery controls, thereby introducing large numbers of hatchery-origin fish that grew to maturity shortly after mortality was reduced. Abundant suitable nearshore spawning habitat was widely available for naive lean hatchery-origin Lake Trout, and native lean Lake Trout persisted in some areas. The Sea Lamprey-selective pesticide TFM (3-trifluoromethyl-4-nitrophenol) was applied first in Lake Superior in 1958 because of the presence of remnant native Lake Trout populations, which set the stage for closure of fisheries and good survival of newly stocked and remnant wild fish. As a consequence of these four factors, stocked fish exceeded historical density of wild fish by the 1980s in many areas and thereby generated enhanced reproductive potential when combined with remnant wild fish. Lake Trout recovery in Lake Superior is an extraordinary example of agency cooperation toward a common goal for managing recovery of an ecologically important shared resource.

From Catastrophe to Recovery: Stories of Fishery Management Success

<i>Abstract</i>.—A 37-year series of standardized fish assessments in the Scioto River (Ohio, USA) since 1979 coupled with historical information documents a near complete recovery from heavily polluted conditions in the late 19th and early to mid-20th centuries. Nearly 100 fish species were extirpated downstream from the city of Columbus (Ohio, USA) by sewage and industrial pollution. The 1972 amendments to the Federal Water Pollution Control Act (Clean Water Act) mandated the control of sewage and industrial pollution. Reductions in loadings of untreated or poorly treated sewage were incremental. Full recovery to near-prepollution composition and abundance took more than two decades after advanced wastewater treatment was achieved. Unpolluted tributaries served as recolonization sources for populations of extirpated species. These positive changes extended across all fish assemblage members as evidenced by increased values of the Ohio index of biotic integrity; modified index of well-being; native species richness, density, and biomass; and the reduced incidence of external anomalies on fish. These restoration successes and their documentation were facilitated by the Clean Water Act that set forth the goals for water quality standards and treatment technology for reducing water pollution and conducting baseline and follow-up monitoring. An important lesson learned was that serious doubts that existed in the 1970s about the feasibility of advanced wastewater treatment technology and the attainability of water quality standards in an effluent dominated river were completely erased by the demonstrated improvements in the fish and macroinvertebrate assemblages in the Scioto River. The extent of improvements in recreational opportunities have tracked that of the biota by an increased use for fishing, canoeing, kayaking, and related forms of recreation. However, maintaining these improvements will require continuation of high levels of wastewater treatment and water quality standards. A growing human population that is forecast to increase by one-half million persons by 2050 makes maintaining the currently high levels of biological integrity a continuing challenge. Given the lessons learned with the mosaic of stressors in the Scioto River over the past 150 years, we believe this challenge can be met successfully.

From Catastrophe to Recovery: Stories of Fishery Management Success

<i>Abstract</i>.—Great river systems (>5,180 km² drainage area or >3,000 m² average annual discharge), due to their sheer size, wide variety of uses, and cross-jurisdictional watersheds, represent unique challenges for fishery managers. Multi-agency collaborations involving direct and consistent communication of all stakeholders, including government and nongovernment organizations, are essential for the successful natural resources management of these systems. Recovery of the severely degraded fishery of the Ohio River is an excellent illustration of the power of direct engagement of large numbers of stakeholders. The river and its tributaries were in such poor condition immediately after the industrial revolution that by the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the main stem had effectively become an industrial and municipal sewer rather than the beautiful stream it had once been. Important steps in the recovery of the system involved the creation of the Ohio River Valley Water Sanitation Commission in 1948 and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency in 1970. Collaborations between these two entities and many other partners, including state natural resource and water quality agencies, other federal agencies, industry, academia, and nongovernmental organizations, coupled with the enactment of the Clean Water Act in 1972, have been responsible for improving the Ohio River from its lowest point in the 1930s to the thriving resource that it is today, sustaining upwards of 160 fish species. Threats still exist to the aquatic communities of the basin, and recent data sets show reasons that more work remains to be done to maintain this valuable resource.

From Catastrophe to Recovery: Stories of Fishery Management Success

<i>Abstract</i>.—The Striped Bass <i>Morone saxatilis</i> is an extremely important commercial and recreational species with a coastal migratory stock in the United States referred to as “Atlantic Striped Bass” managed by the Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission (ASMFC). Atlantic Striped Bass has four major contributing stocks, including the Chesapeake Bay, which comprises 70–90%, and the Hudson River, the Delaware River, and the Albemarle Sound/Roanoke River (A/R). The collapse of Atlantic Striped Bass in the late 1970s precipitated federal funding and legislation like the Emergency Striped Bass Study for research on causative factors of the decline and potential management recommendations. The 1981 ASMFC Interstate Fishery Management Plan (ISFMP) for Atlantic Striped Bass was nonmandatory and mostly ineffective until the 1984 Atlantic Striped Bass Conservation Act provided regulatory authorities to the ASMFC and the federal government to close fisheries in states out of compliance with ISFMPs. Restrictions and moratoria on harvest imposed in several states reduced mortality, and under favorable environmental conditions and given Striped Bass life history, multiple years of good recruitment occurred. This allowed target thresholds for female spawning stock biomass to be achieved and the ASMFC to declare recoveries of Atlantic Striped Bass stocks from 1995 to 1998. Regulation of river flows was particularly important for the A/R stock recovery, and this stock is presented as a case study. During the 20+ years following recovery, long-term monitoring by states in support of adaptive management was primarily supported by the stable, nonappropriated funding of the Sport Fish Restoration Act. Monitoring includes spawning stock characterization and biomass estimation, juvenile abundance surveys, cooperative coastwide tagging, and harvest data collection. Future issues facing the recovered Atlantic Striped Bass include interspecies effects of relatively high abundance, management of stocks separately instead of as a single coastal stock, and ecosystem-based fisheries management. Key lessons learned in the Atlantic Striped Bass recovery are that high societal value of the species provided the political impetus to create and fund the recovery program, coordination of management and enforcement efforts among all jurisdictions was essential for this migratory species, and fully funded long-term monitoring programs are critical to adaptive population management.