Coinage and the Egyptian Economy

A major consequence of the integration of Egypt into the Achameneid Empire was its newfound need for silver in order to make tribute payments. This was achieved by selling grain and other products to the Greeks. As a result Egypt acquired large quantities of Athenian tetradrachms, which became so prominent that by the end of the fifth century it appeared as a unit of account in Demotic and Aramaic documents, and was even imitated by the Egyptians. Indeed, the tetradrachm was so prevalent that during the Second Persian Period imitations of it were even issued in the names of the satraps Sabaces and Mazaces, and of Artaxerxes III himself. In this respect Achaemenid rule played an important yet indirect role in setting Egypt on the road to monetization.

Experiencing Achaemenid Egypt

The final chapter considers briefly how Ptolemaic ideology and propaganda have refashioned the memory of Achaemenid rule into something explicitly negative, thus coloring all subsequent accounts of the period. It then discusses and recapitulates how studying experience provides a way around these Greek-influenced accounts of the Persians, and provide a clearer picture of the complexity of ancient imperialism.

Rural Experiences: The Western Desert

This chapter is concerned with the Dakhla and Kharga Oases in the Western Desert. This was an obscure region, considered by the Egyptians to be outside of Egypt proper. Population there was limited, especially after the Old Kingdom when the artesian wells dried up. This picture changes dramatically under Achaemenid rule. Several temples were established or expanded in the oasis. One of these, the Hibis Temple is the earliest example of the ‘pan-Egyptian’ temples that characterized the Ptolemaic and Roman periods. New towns were built along with these temples, and these towns were supplied with water by means of qanats, an irrigation technology that originated in Iran. The resurgence of the oasis, then, served an imperial purpose, namely to link this important strategic location more closely to centers of imperial power in the Nile valley. But, as the Demotic ostraca from Ain Manawir indicate, this act also created a thriving local economy with ties to the Mediterranean and the production of cash crops, notably castor oil, for export. Once again, the empire’s impact in the oases produced varied consequences.

Urban Experiences: Memphis

This chapter focuses on Memphis and its associated necropoleis. Memphis served as the seat of the satrap, based in the Palace of Apries, which continued its military and administrative functions. The cult of the Apis bull was maintained, and perhaps even expanded. Likewise, the practice of building shaft tombs among the Old Kingdom royal pyramids at Saqqara, Abusir and Giza also continued; some of these tombs are among the most impressive of the Late Period. Thus Memphis remained an important place, both in the physical landscape of Egypt, and also in the cultural memory of the Egyptians themselves. At the same time it was also a great cosmopolis, and Achaemenid rule only added to its diversity. The sealings and bilingual tags recovered from the Palace of Apries attest to a social environment in which multiple traditions of material culture were valued and utilized side by side. Even the names recorded in Demotic and Aramic papyri found at Saqqara feature combinations of Egyptian and foreign names within single families, pointing to a social climate of interaction and diversity rather than strict divisions between Persians and Egyptians.

The Study of Achaemenid Egypt

The introductory chapter provides some historical context for the study of Achaemenid Egypt. This period in Egyptian history is an orphan of sorts, falling between the earlier periods, of great interest to Egyptologists, and the Ptolemaic and Roman periods, of great interest to classicists. Along with this lack of interest, there is also a more insidious tendency to emphasize the scarcity of evidence for this period, something Margaret Root has called the ‘politics of meagerness.’ This tendency is tied to nineteenth century orientalist views of the Persians as savage despots, a view also held by the ancient Greeks. To avoid these issues, this book focuses on the experience of Achaemenid rule. This involves two main approaches: 1.) the examination of continuities and changes in the structures of Egyptian society, and 2.) a study of identity through decisions made about material by individuals and communities.

Social Practices: Drinking Like a Persian

This chapter considers how Achaemenid rule may have affected the decisions people made about identity on a daily basis by examining culinary practices, especially those related to alcohol. Culinary practices are closely linked to identity and status, and the introduction of new vessels forms suggests changes to how Egyptians viewed their positions in society in this period. After discussing dining practices in the Achaemenid Empire, both at the royal court and in the Persian heartland more broadly, this chapter surveys the evidence for Persian vessel types in Egypt. It focuses on three specific types – the Achaemenid phiale, the rhyton, and the Achaemenid bowl. The adoption of these vessel forms in Egypt suggests that Egyptians began to participate in the social hierarchy of the empire. Moreover, versions of them were made in faience and ceramic, indicating that their use was not limited to social elites. The introduction and adaptation of these foreign drinking vessels, and perhaps also the drinking practices associated with them, illustrate the ways that Achaemenid rule may have altered social life in Egypt, even if only on a limited scale.

Representation and Identity

This chapter considers the construction of individual identities and their representations in various visual media. The prevailing view has been that the 27th Dynasty was characterized by artistic poverty brought on by Achaemenid rule. A reexamination of the dating criteria used to create the corpus of Late Period sculpture demonstrates that this ‘poverty’ is a modern scholarly construct. Moreover, these criteria are more frequently used to exclude objects from the 27th Dynasty than to attribute objects to it. The examples of Egyptian art that can unequivocally be assigned to the Achaemenid period are illustrative of a wide range of approaches to and experiences with the empire. These include the statue of Darius found at Susa, the stelae erected along the Red Sea canal, funerary monuments, personal votives, and the naophorous statues of Horwedja, Ptahhotep and Udjahorresnet. Based on these example, it seems that ethnicity was not a clear predictor either of one’s relationship to the empire or of how one conceived of one’s own identity.