Rulers without Borders

This chapter explores the nature of polity borders in Early Postclassic Yucatan. It outlines definitions for borders and related terms and argues that the Itza maintained hegemonic rather than territorial control of the Yucatan Peninsula. In this model of dominance, the Itza subjugated the local leadership and demanded tribute but did not interfere in the day-to-day interactions of commoners. The Itza were more concerned with protecting the centers of power rather than defending finite, linear borders. If such territorial demarcations existed, they were open to the passage of commerce and commoners but not hostile forces.

K’ak’ Upakal K’inich K’awil and the Lords of the Fire

This chapter integrates ceramics, stratigraphy, epigraphy, and careful readings of ethnohistoric sources to propose a historical reconstruction of Chichen Itza, focused particularly on the ninth century. The authors reject the partial and total overlap models for Chichen Itza construction and settlement and argue for the sequential construction of architecture in the Late Classic, Puuc, and International styles. Focusing on the individual named K’ak’ Upakal, the authors reconstruct the activities of this early ruler, his relatives and his court and the rituals at the core of Chichen’s ceremonial life.

To Face or to Flee from the Foe

The murals of the Upper Temple of the Jaguars present highly detailed and semi-mythologized representations of warfare through the vantage point of victorious forces. While previous interpretations have focused on the male combatants and the potential locations of the battles, this chapter focuses on the women who are targets of warfare. The authors propose that one goal of Itza conquest was the attainment of female labor and that, in pursuit of that aim, women were potential subjects of disturbing acts of violence.

The Osario of Chichen Itza

This chapter analyzes the Osario, also called the High Priest’s Grave, by combining early-twentieth-century explorations with recent INAH excavations. A radial temple that parallels the Castillo in some aspects, the Osario is coeval in date with the Temple of the Warriors. The author proposes that the Osario was a representation of Flower Mountain, a place of abundance, home of the gods and ancestors, and an afterlife abode where warriors were rewarded for their heroic lives and contributions to trade and economic prosperity. The chapter further suggests that the cave under the temple served as the final repository for the remains of warriors, who underwent cremation similar to traditions of central Mexico.

The Archaeology of Chichen Itza

This chapter is a comprehensive overview of research at Chichen Itza written from an archaeological perspective. The authors present a historical review of excavations, settlement pattern studies, the interpretation of ethnohistoric sources, and the decipherment of hieroglyphic texts. They also discuss some of the main points of contention in Chichen Itza archaeology: its ceramic and architectural sequences, the timing of the end of construction, and the question of whether to consider it a Terminal Classic or Postclassic site. Based upon a careful consideration of multiple lines of evidence—including new data about ceramics, stratigraphy, and paleoclimatology—they conclude by offering a succinct picture of the urban growth of Chichen Itza, the development of its artistic and architectural programs, and its interactions with surrounding sites.

The Least Earth

This chapter concerns landscapes at Chichen Itza, including actual terrain and two- and three-dimensional representations of landscape. The focus is the Mercado, a gallery-patio building, the largest structure in the Group of the Thousand Columns, an elite walled compound in the site center. The Mercado is a performative space for elite lineage rituals, and its carved and painted dais functioned as a throne. The throne’s embellishment—which includes a sky-earth profile, skybands, and processions of bound figures—suggests a primordial place of origin, fertility, and political authority. The chapter also discusses more broadly the power of landscape in establishing identity, the trope of walking at Chichen Itza, and associated Yucatec Maya moral codes.

In the Shadow of Quetzalcoatl

This chapter investigates how the rise of Chichen Itza impacted small towns and villages in the vicinity. An analysis of ceramics, architecture, obsidian, and other classes of data at these communities suggests that the degree to which they embraced the Feathered Serpent ideology and its associated political economy prevalent at Chichen was highly variable. In some cases, towns were tightly integrated into the Chichen political economy, but others appear to have been only indirectly connected. The data indicates that Chichen Itza had different strategies in dealing with its smaller neighbors, and it is likely that some local leaders chose to interact with Chichen because of opportunities to obtain trade goods like obsidian that this city provided.

The Castillo-sub at Chichen Itza

Despite its prominent position at the center of Chichen Itza’s Great Terrace, the Castillo remains poorly documented and poorly understood. Reviewing the earliest descriptions and explorations of the structure, as well as more recent discoveries, this chapter addresses the function, meaning, and dating of this building and its substructure. Its placement (possibly over a cenote) and orientation in relation to topographical features and astronomical phenomena are also addressed. The inner Castillo and its varied offerings, found intact in the 1930s, is examined in some detail. The author argues that the temple chamber, with its chacmool, jaguar throne, and femurs imbedded in the walls, could have been the setting for sacrificial rituals. This pyramid or an even earlier substructure may have been a royal burial place, with the final construction (in the tenth century) giving the building a more public, calendrical role closely connected to the cult of the Feathered Serpent.

Introduction

The introduction discusses the importance of Chichen Itza as a Maya capital, hub of a trading network, and home to a unique art tradition. Landscape is a unifying theme, and its geographical, philosophical, and theoretical associations are explored. Some chapters focus on recent archaeology of Chichen Itza and related sites in Yucatan while others offer new interpretations of the Castillo-sub, Osario, Mercado, and Upper Temple of the Jaguars. Each chapter is summarized, with specific attention paid to points of interconnection between chapters, historiography, chronology, visual culture, social interaction, ritual, rulership, and the disciplines of archaeology and art history.