General Conclusions

This chapter summarizes the main findings of this book. It reviews how economic activities carried out by Italians contributed to the integration of the Italian peoples into the Roman framework. Throughout the Republican period, Italians had been able to profit from the expansion of the Roman dominion in the Mediterranean; through overseas trade and commercial agriculture they had gained significant wealth, which they invested in the Italian landscape. They were often ahead of Romans when it came to engagement with Hellenistic culture. However, their economic prosperity and cultural sophistication did not lead to civic equality with Roman citizens, nor to equal opportunities to exploit the territories that the Italians had conquered under Rome’s lead. Eventually, the Italians rebelled against Rome in the Social War (91–88 BC), after which they were granted citizenship. The grant of citizenship stimulated further integration, in the economic, political, social, and cultural senses, between Romans and Italians.

Consequences of Interaction

Chapter 4 investigates the long-term consequences of the association between Rome and the Italians. This chapter looks at changes in institutions and laws that occurred in the Republican period, as well as systems of weights, measures, and coinage, which varied widely throughout Italy. Secondly, this chapter discusses how wealth was invested in public and private building in Italy. Next, chapter 4 also looks in more detail at cultural and linguistic changes in Italy in the Republican period. Furthermore, the chapter discusses the concept of Italia and of an Italian identity, which emerged in the third and second centuries. Finally, this chapter discusses the attempts of the Romans to maintain the Italians’ loyalty, by making sure the benefits of association with Rome outweighed the disadvantages.

The Economic Integration of Italy

Chapter 3 discusses economic change in Italy. It investigates economic activities carried out by the Italians independently from Roman interference. Many Italians were quick to take advantage of the possibilities offered by their association with Rome, such as the opening up of new markets for Italian products and safer sailing because of Roman control of the Mediterranean. These economic activities had important consequences for economic developments in Italy itself: many far-reaching changes took place in the third to first centuries, such as changes in settlement patterns and an increase in the scale of agricultural production. Nevertheless, not every change that occurred after the Roman conquest should be ascribed to the conquest itself. The second part of chapter 3 investigates the economic and cultural developments that occurred in four sample areas, in order to trace the level of economic integration as a result of macroeconomic developments in Italy.

Points of Contact

This chapter discusses where and how interaction between Romans and Italians occurred. An important location for interaction may have been the colonies settled by the Romans throughout Italy. Many Italians also lived in these towns, which thus served as meeting places between Romans and Italians. Seasonal migration for work and transhumant pasturing created further contacts between different peoples. Finally, economic interaction also occurred at sanctuaries, seasonal fairs, and permanent marketplaces, which often served as regional economic centres. Furthermore, chapter 2 will discuss non-economic types of interaction between Romans and Italians, especially social relations and military service. This will give a general impression of the type and frequency of interactions between Romans and Italians.

From Economic to Political Integration

Chapter 5 investigates the reasons for growing Italian discontent in the second century. This chapter traces the disadvantages that the Italians experienced because they did not have Roman citizenship, both with regard to prejudice from Romans, as well as negative effects on the economic position of the Italians. Rome was reluctant to share the Roman citizenship and its material benefits with the Italians. This dissatisfaction eventually culminated in the Social War of 91–88. This chapter argues that economic considerations played a larger role in the outbreak of the war than is usually assumed. The Italians were granted Roman citizenship after the Social War, but this was not the final culmination of the process of cultural change. Roman citizenship was itself an impulse for further cultural integration, as Italians now actively strove to associate themselves with Rome.

Introduction

This chapter sets out the main issues discussed in this book regarding the position of the Italians in the Republican period. It summarizes earlier scholarly views on integration and identity and presents the most recent theories regarding these concepts. In doing so, it reviews earlier literature on the much-debated issue of Romanization. It also introduces economic theories that will be applied in the book, such as New Institutional Economics. Furthermore, the chapter gives a basic overview of the various legal statuses that existed in Republican Italy. Finally, this chapter gives an introduction into the sources and methodology used in this study.