An Integrated Global Science and Religion

In the countries and regions featured in this book, there are more religious scientists than we might think. There are varieties of atheism that exist among scientists in these Western and Eastern contexts. In contrast to the “warfare thesis” that science and religion are inherently in conflict with one another, the conflict perspective on science and religion is primarily promulgated by those in the West. The popular notion of science and religion as “nonoverlapping magisteria”—that science and religion are domains of human experience that do not overlap, with science the realm of natural facts and religion the realm of values—is only partially true. There are many ways forward for dialogue.

Italy

Italy is an overwhelmingly Catholic nation. Roman Catholicism is pervasive in Italy and an integral part of Italian culture. Because of this, most Italian scientists are of the same faith background, at least raised nominally Catholic. The majority of Italian scientists identify as Roman Catholic and also see themselves as at least slightly religious. The majority of scientists also believe in God or some form of higher power. They see Catholicism as relatively free from conflict with science, but are critical of what they see as its occasional intrusions into science-related policies. Most Italian scientists also see religion as totally separate from science. Nevertheless, the Italian context also provides opportunities for dialogue between science and religion, which could be a model for other countries.

United States

US scientists believe that the US religious public is generally antiscience. However the views of religious Americans are much more nuanced and religious Americans are often more open to science and scientific issues than scientists would believe. Nevertheless, scientists’ perceptions of the religious public in the United States shape their views of religion and science. Scientists who are religious generally keep their science and their faith separate. Religious scientists feel they are at risk of discrimination within the scientific community, because of existing stereotypes about religious people. Religious scientists are often influenced by their faith when choosing scientific work that they think will have a beneficial impact on society.

France

France is characterized by its assertive secularism and its strong separation of church and state. Its official policy of laїcité means that there is not as much potential for conflict between religion and science because they are kept so separate and public expressions of religion are suppressed. Because religion is overall absent from the public sphere, it is all the more obvious when it does come up; and thus Muslim women who wear headscarves feel increased discrimination within science because of this visible symbol of their faith. Because religion is kept out of the public sphere, and thus out of science, there seems to be little room for collaboration or dialogue.

Hong Kong and Taiwan

The idea of science and religion in conflict does not pervade Taiwan and Hong Kong as it often does in the West. Instead, there is often free expression of religion within the workplace. Scientists in Taiwan and Hong Kong actually mirror the public in terms of religiosity, perhaps because there is little tension between science and religion in these societies. In Hong Kong the history of Christianity comes up in the scientific workplace through the practices of Christian scientists; and in Taiwan the presence of folk religion can be felt within the scientific workplace, though it is subtler than in Hong Kong.

India

India’s unique brand of secularism is accommodating to religion and diverse forms of religious expression, including within the scientific workplace. Religion is deeply ingrained in cultural and social life in India, and thus it plays a significant role in family life, even for those who do not consider themselves religious. Although most scientists view religion and science as belonging to separate realms, religious is a pervasive presence in Indian society, and extends its influence even into scientific institutions. Most scientists do not view religion in science as negative, but instead as a normal part of life.

Turkey

Turkey is a predominantly Muslim nation. However in recent years the nature of religion in Turkey is changing drastically. While there has been a long history of secularism in the country, recent political changes are seemingly moving the country in a direction of religious freedom and expression. Yet, as scientists expressed in their interviews, it is a specific religious ideology that is being pushed. These changes in government and politics have had an impact on Turkey’s scientific community. Scientists are leaving the uncertainty of scientific work in Turkey for more stability in other nations.

United Kingdom

Religiosity overall is decreasing in the United Kingdom. Yet recent waves of new immigrants entering the country are bringing religious diversity to the country and to science. While Christianity has long been the majority religion in the United Kingdom, the increased presence of Islam, Hinduism, and other religions is changing the nature of the UK scientific workplace. In particular, scientists have been affected, as detailed in their interviews, by the presence of Muslim students and colleagues, fearing for example that more Muslims in science will lead to increased antievolution sentiment. In addition to the impact of immigration, the influence of the so-called New Atheists is strong within the United Kingdom. However despite their seemingly large presence, scientists in the United Kingdom, whether religious or nonreligious, are often more moderate, more willing to collaborate, and more open to religion than the New Atheists seem to indicate.

Cases and Concepts

There are many ways to define religion, such as a system of beliefs about God, higher powers, or other supernatural or superhuman entities, or an organized belief system taught and shared by a specific community. Scientist respondents in this study provided various understandings and definitions of religion as well as their understandings of spirituality. Respondents came from the disciplines of biology and physics. These disciplines are considered classic natural-science disciplines, and some consider them to be at the top of the hierarchy of science. In addition, religion interacts with each discipline in specific and meaningful ways. Each of the eight nations and regions was chosen for inclusion in the study for scholarly and practical reasons with characteristics of religion and science in each country heavily influencing case selection. Religion in the scientific workplace and comparing scientists with the general public were central to studying religion and science in each context.

Introduction

There has been much scholarly work on the interface between science and religion in the United States and the United Kingdom, but little has been done to compare these to other countries and regions around the world. By studying what scientists think about religion in eight national and regional contexts—the United States, the United Kingdom, France, Italy, Turkey, India, Hong Kong, and Taiwan—the researchers provide a more global and nuanced view of science and religion around the world. The chapter previews the methodological scope of the research, findings from each national context, and the main claims of the book.