Conclusion: Balkan Paramilitaries

It summarises previous chapters and their conclusions about very alive legacies of paramilitarism in the Balkans, and how it is possible to invoke paramilitary traditions and embed them into contemporary context. By the rule these attempts proved to be simple misuse either by political or structures close to the secret services. Up to now modern paramilitarism and its relations with Balkan paramilitary traditions didn’t attract public attention apart of several journalists who published several works and one documentary on different Serbian paramilitary formations during the wars of Yugoslav succession. What is raising concerns and can be qualified as alarming is that paramilitaries were perpetrators of most horrible war crimes and different violent acts against civilian population especially during the latest wars in former Yugoslavia during the 1990’s, and that during that period some of them created strong ties with the world of international organized crime.

The Age of Coups d’état

Chapter V is dedicated to several coup d’états as well as counter coups and unsuccessful attempts that happened in investigated period in Albania and Bulgaria. In Albania coups were integral part of struggle for stability in this country while in Bulgaria coup was a mean for undoing changes that occurred after the Great War. In almost all of them paramilitaries had their peace of action. In the same time Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, despite numerous difficulties and overall diversity, was never endangered by prospect of violent overturn. On the contrary, it often served as safe haven for those actors from Albania and Bulgaria who lost and were forced to leave the country or served as basis for counter-coup providing assistance, resources and even experienced paramilitaries. However, in both Albanian and Bulgarian examples of overturn it showed how for successful outcome good organization, determination, focus, and precise plans both for the execution and ‘the day after’ showed to be far more important than overall numbers.

Balkan Borderlands

Chapter III is introduction to geographical and demographic context of the study. It uses the concept of borderlands, more precisely imperial borderlands that is territories which are considered as spaces-in-between with malleable identities which are often disputed and in general difficult to control. It analyses situation in all three countries such as: first usages of paramilitaries in the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes and controversies that occurred; how IMRO adjusted to new circumstances and continued with its operation; how new agrarian regime in Bulgaria, overwhelmed with challenges and dysfunctional state and its institutions was forced to create its own paramilitary formation—Orange Guard and which in practical terms represented discontinuity with Balkan paramilitary traditions; and what was the role of the Albanian irregulars during the turbulent post-war quest for stability in that country taking in mind specific features Albanian society. It also questions if Albanian irregulars as such can be determined as paramilitaries as their contemporary counterparts. Finally it presents what was the role and place of Serbian chetniks in their post-Black Hand years, that is, in period when, after the annihilation of the secret organization Unification or Death aka the Black Hand, the organization that had strong influence on their organization and usage, they became one of many veterans’ associations. It also analyses the place of the Toplica Uprising in 1917 as one of the most important determinants of chetniks identity and ethos.

Origins

Chapter I presents the story of origins of modern Balkan paramilitaries which was shaped during the late 19th—early 20th century nation and state building processes in the Balkans. Existing traditions of guerrilla warfare were used during the struggle between Greece, Bulgaria and Serbia over Ottoman Macedonia when all three countries initiated sending of small armed bands to Macedonia in order to protect their own and intimidate rivals followers. It also describes appearance of Albanian national movement and how Balkan countries used their respective paramilitaries during the Balkan Wars 1912-1913 and the First World War. It also shows how during the Toplica uprising in 1917 against Bulgarian and Austro-Hungarian occupation regimes in Serbia happened yet another bloody encounter of Serbian, Bulgarian and Albanian paramilitaries. Situation after the First World War was characterised by adjusting to new realities, by creation of new organizations and by arrival of non-Balkan actors—‘White’ Russians émigrés and former participants in Russian revolutions. Both groups brought their own experiences, visions and rivalries.

Introduction: Balkan Paramilitaries – Undemobilized Combatants

Introduction provides information about the study chronological and geographical contexts; similarities and differences between broader European and Balkan phenomenon’s of paramilitarism after the First World War as well as most important features of Balkan paramilitarism in investigated period (1917-1924) such as: intensive political engagement, strong inclination towards guerrilla warfare, personal allegiances rather than organizational or institutional ones, active participation in armed conflicts, political crisis, coups, etc, arrival of ‘White’ Russians and ex Russian revolutionaries as the new bearers of paramilitarism and paramilitary violence in the Balkans, violence as an integral part of paramilitaries and reoccurring in identical or similar shapes despite the changes in ideological and political context. It also speaks of strong legacy of Balkan paramilitarism and how it continued to have strong influence in subsequent conflicts in the region—Second World War and Wars of Yugoslav Succession 1991–1999.

Legacies

Chapter VII as final chapter tells a story of legacies, that is, how it happened that in decade to follow, despite weakening of the paramilitary phenomenon, Balkan witnessed several revivals of the paramilitarism. Although in Yugoslavia it had slowly moved towards the commemorations, in Bulgaria ban of IMRO after the 1934 shattered its structures, and in Albania paramilitarism was neutralized through militarization, already during the Second World War it went through its first resurgence. Many paramilitary groups appeared claiming to rely on rich traditions of paramilitary organizing. After the war rich tradition and experience in guerrilla warfare made it possible for many anti-communist individuals and groups to try to resist rapid sovietisation of their respective countries. Finally, during the violent dissolution of Yugoslavia during 1990’s many paramilitary groups tried to appeal to senses of common people and evoke legacies of paramilitary organization of the past. Although they claimed to be heirs of paramilitaries from the time of Macedonian struggle 1903–1908, Balkan Wars and First World War, their ethos, behavioural patterns, and language made them very different. Their appearance was the only thing they had in common. Needless to say how majority of the perpetrators of war crimes during the Yugoslav wars were actually members of various paramilitary organizations.

Individuals and Organizations

Chapter VI turns attention on individuals and organizations by emphasizing of the notable features of the Balkan paramilitaries—personal allegiances and building strong personal ties rather than institutional ones. In case of disruption of these ties and drastic changes within organization many Balkan paramilitaries would rather defect or change side. Often these turbulent shifts represented introduction to vicious cycles of vendetta assassinations that threatened to completely paralyse organization’s activities. It also led to the appearance of colourful and interesting personalities whose career paths used to be equally turbulent. Also, opposite to period before the Balkan Wars when organizations tend to rely only on their sponsor states, after the First World War began realignment of organizations following the newly established division on vanquished and victorious. All those who were interested in revision of existing order were considered as convenient ally despite considerable political and ideological differences. In one moment IMRO was forging alliances with Kosovo Committee, Italy, Croatian extremists, and international communist movement.

New Context + Traditional Methods = Unexpected Outcomes

Chapter IV is dedicated to the situation in all three countries after the Great War, that is, among theirs paramilitaries, and how they have adjusted to new realities. One big change was the fact that Ottoman Empire vanished from the Balkans, however its legacy and traditions were very alive and present. However, some of the former komitajis faced with existential difficulties begin with criminal activities such as pillaging, extortion, kidnapping and smuggling. It also shows how Yugoslav army and Gendarmerie slowly but surely started to coordinate their activities with civil authorities in order to prevent incursions of IMRO komitajis and Albanian kachak’s. Chapter analyses to what extent extraordinary measures that were introduced helped in suppression of two different security challenges as well as what were the answers of individuals and organizations. Most notable were office of the Commissar for Southern Regions and Organization against the Bulgarian Bandits. For the short time of its work office of the Commissar was given extraordinary authorisation and mechanisms for coordination between different agencies which proved efficient in fight against IMRO komitajis and kachaks. Organization against Bulgarian Bandits was completely new paramilitary formation. Created on existing principles it in a way represented step back in efforts to modernize Yugoslav southern regions.

Demobilization vs. Mobilization

Chapter II deals with immediate post-war situation in countries that are a focus of the study and the repercussions of their newly acquired status of either vanquished or victorious. It shows how in practical terms most of the Balkan paramilitaries didn’t step out from the war but remain ‘mobilized’ for future engagement. While Serbian chetniks were the first summoned to answer to numerous security challenges, komitajis of the IMRO and Albanian kachaks led by the Kosovo Committee didn’t want to accept new order and new realities so visible in creation of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes and the fact that Macedonia and Kosovo and Metohija became integral part of new South Slav state. While old actors and organizations continued their struggle, new one appeared as well, such as Military or Officers League—secret organizations of Bulgarian officers who were discharged from active duty after Bulgaria as other defeated countries had to drastically reduce its armed forces and abolish conscription. As others they refused to accept new realities and were ready to work in favour of revision of existing order. Balkans also witnessed arrival of thousands of Russian emigrants as well as their former adversaries who fought on the side of the Bolsheviks. Both groups were ready to continue the struggle and immediately upon arrival they started either creating their own paramilitary structures—like communists—either wanted to preserve existing military organizations—like ‘White’ Russians.