The History of the Definition(s)of Death: From the 18th Century to the 20th Century

2008 ◽  
pp. 65-78 ◽  
Author(s):  
Leslie M. Whetstine
Keyword(s):  
20Th Century ◽  
18Th Century ◽  
History Of

LITERARY ROMANTICISM AS A THEORETICAL ISSUE

2020 ◽  
pp. 19-27
Author(s):  
Vera V. Serdechnaia ◽  
Keyword(s):  
20Th Century ◽  
Conceptual Analysis ◽  
18Th Century ◽  
Theoretical Concept ◽  
Historical Research ◽  
Theoretical Issue ◽  
Main Research ◽  
Literary Process ◽  
History Of ◽  
The Subject

The article is devoted to the analysis of the concept of literary romanticism. The research aims at a refinement of the “romanticism” concept in relation to the history of the literary process. The main research methods include conceptual analysis, textual analysis, comparative historical research. The author analyzes the semantic genesis of the term “romanticism”, various interpretations of the concept, compares the definitions of different periods and cultures. The main results of the study are as follows. The history of the term “romanticism” shows a change in a number of definitions for the same concept in relation to the same literary phenomena. By the end of the 20th century, realizing the existence of significant contradictions in the content of the term “romanticism”, researchers often come to abandon it. At the same time, the steady use of the term “romanticism” testifies to the subject-conceptual component that exists in it, which does not lose its relevance, but just needs a theoretical refinement. Conclusion: one have to revise an approach to romanticism as a theoretical concept, based on the change in the concept of an individual in Europe at the end of the 18th century. It is the newly discovered freedom of an individual predetermines the rethinking for the image of the author as a creator and determines the artistic features of literary romanticism.

scholarly journals Considerations to some forms of the verb a fi: sum and sunt

Diacronia ◽  
2018 ◽  
Author(s):  
Gheorghe Chivu
Keyword(s):  
20Th Century ◽  
19Th Century ◽  
18Th Century ◽  
History Of ◽  
Literary Writing ◽  
The 19Th Century

The history of the verbal forms sum and sunt, introduced into the literary writing by the Transylvanian Latinist School, reveals a winding process in the elaboration of certain cultured norms proper to the modern literary Romanian. Not at all linear, this process was concurrently influenced by two, often divergent, tendencies that were active from the end of the 18th century up to the beginning of the 20th century: the use of some cultured forms, borrowed from Latin or created according to Latin patterns; and the revitalization of certain linguistic forms with regional diffusion. Initially proposed as literary pronunciations, the two verbal forms were soon adopted and used as etymological graphic forms that corresponded to sîm and suntu from certain conservative patois. During the second half of the 19th century (sum), and during the first decades of the 20th century (sunt), the two graphic forms became orthoepic norms as well, due to the phonological tradition of the Romanian writing.

scholarly journals Protestant cemeteries in Czechia: a necrogeographical perspective

Geografie ◽  
2016 ◽  
Vol 121 (1) ◽  
pp. 187-207
Author(s):  
Zdeněk R. Nešpor
Keyword(s):  
20Th Century ◽  
18Th Century ◽  
Regional Distribution ◽  
Social Geography ◽  
Data Sources ◽  
Important Research ◽  
History Of ◽  
Research Questions ◽  
Czech Lands ◽  
The Impact

The article introduces the field of necrogeography to Czech social geography and provides information on existing (nationwide) data sources. The author takes the issue of Protestant confessional cemeteries as an example, briefly outlines the history of these special types of burial fields (established principally from the end of the 18th century until approximately the mid-20th century), and provides a historical geographical analysis of their regional distribution in the Czech Lands. The article proves the impact of religious and geographical factors on the emergence (and eventual demise) of non-Catholic Christian confessional cemeteries and, at the same time, the research unveiled a number of important research questions to be addressed by Czech necrogeography in the future.

Declining fires in Larix-dominated forests in northern Irkutsk district

2011 ◽  
Vol 20 (2) ◽  
pp. 248 ◽  
Author(s):  
Tuomo Wallenius ◽  
Markku Larjavaara ◽  
Juha Heikkinen ◽  
Olga Shibistova
Keyword(s):  
20Th Century ◽  
Forest Fires ◽  
Fire History ◽  
18Th Century ◽  
Fire Suppression ◽  
Tree Ring Chronology ◽  
Fire Cycle ◽  
History Of ◽  
Historical Accounts ◽  
Additional Explanation

To study the poorly known fire history of Larix-dominated forest in central Siberia, we collected samples from 200 trees in 46 systematically located study plots. Our study area stretches ~90 km from north to south along the River Nizhnyaya Tunguska in northern Irkustk district. Cross-dated tree-ring chronology for all samples combined extended from the year 1360 AD to the present and included 76 fire years and 88 separate fire events. Average fire cycle gradually lengthened from 52 years in the 18th century to 164 years in the 20th century. During the same time, the number of recorded fires decreased even more steeply, i.e. by more than 85%. Fires were more numerous but smaller in the past. Contrary to expectations, climate change in the 20th century has not resulted in increased forest fires in this region. Fire suppression may have contributed to the scarcity of fires since the 1950s. However, a significant decline in fires was evident earlier; therefore an additional explanation is required, a reduction in human-caused ignitions being likely in the light of historical accounts.

The History of Christian Missions to Africa

2019 ◽  
Author(s):  
Norman Etherington
Keyword(s):  
20Th Century ◽  
French Revolution ◽  
18Th Century ◽  
Sub Saharan Africa ◽  
Foreign Born ◽  
13Th Century ◽  
Christian Missions ◽  
Late 20Th Century ◽  
History Of ◽  
Sub Saharan

Christianity came very early to Africa, as attested by the Gospels. The agencies by which it spread across North Africa and into the Kingdom of Aksum remain largely unknown. Even after the rise of Islam cut communications between sub-Saharan Africa and the churches of Rome and Constantinople, it survived in the eastern Sudan kingdom of Nubia until the 15th century and never died in Ethiopia. The documentary history of organized missions begins with the Roman Catholic monastic orders founded in the 13th century. Their evangelical work in Africa was closely bound up with Portuguese colonialism, which both helped and hindered their operations. Organized European Protestant missions date from the 18th-century evangelical awakening and were much less creatures of states. Africa was a particular object of attention for Evangelicals opposed to slavery and the slave trade. Paradoxically this gave an impetus to colonizing ventures aimed at undercutting the moral and economic foundations of slavery in Africa. Disease proved to be a deadly obstacle to European- and American-born missionaries in tropical Africa, thus spurring projects for enrolling local agents who had acquired childhood immunity. Southern Africa below the Zambezi River attracted missionaries from many parts of Europe and North America because of the absence of the most fearsome diseases. However the turbulent politics of the region complicated their work by restricting their access to organized African kingdoms and chieftaincies. The prevalent mission model until the late 19th century was a station under the direction of a single European family whose religious and educational endeavors were directed at a small number of African residents. Catholic missions acquired new energy following the French Revolution, the old Portuguese system of partnership with the state was displaced by enthusiasm for independent operations under the authority of the Pope in Rome. Several new missionary orders were founded with a particular focus on Africa. Mission publications of the 19th and 20th centuries can convey a misleading impression that the key agents in the spread of African Christianity were foreign-born white males. Not only does this neglect the work of women as wives and teachers, but it diverts attention from the Africans who were everywhere the dominant force in the spread of modern Christianity. By the turn of the 20th century, evangelism had escaped the bounds of mission stations driven by African initiative and the appearance of so-called “faith missions” based on a model of itinerant preaching. African prophets and independent evangelists developed new forms of Christianity. Once dismissed as heretical or syncretic, they gradually came to be recognized as legitimate variants of the sort that have always accompanied the acculturation of religion in new environments. Decolonization caught most foreign mission operations unawares and required major changes, most notably in the recruitment of African clergy to the upper echelons of church hierarchies. By the late 20th century Africans emerged as an independent force in Christian missions, sending agents to other continents.

Popular Literacy and the Roots of the New Writing

1986 ◽  
Vol 168 (2) ◽  
pp. 31-46 ◽  
Author(s):  
John Willinsky
Keyword(s):  
United States ◽  
20Th Century ◽  
18Th Century ◽  
Writing Programs ◽  
The Past ◽  
New Approaches ◽  
Literacy Crisis ◽  
History Of ◽  
Popular Literacy ◽  
20Th Century United States

The place of writing in the curriculum has recently increased in importance under a series of new approaches based on a processing model of how writers write. An overlooked aspect of these new programs in the schools is the degree to which they parallel aspects of an earlier, popular literacy. In a brief recounting of incidents in the history of literacy with a focus on Renaissance Europe, 17th- and 18th-century England, and the 20th-century United States, three historical elements are brought to light which now play a strong part in the new programs. In these programs literacy (a) is sociable, (b) has its roots in nonstandardized language, and (c) places a premium on performance and publication. Insofar as the new writing takes up these aspects of popular literacy, there is reason to feel that it will work to some degree in meeting the current literacy crisis. However, the traditions of popular literacy have both political and social ramifications which warrant our attention. Popular literacy in the past has been entangled in the sensational and subversive and has not always been well received. This history raises questions as to what can be expected and what is desired of this new thrust in writing. The advocates of the new writing programs need to confront the potential of this increased voice, this latest form of popular literacy, which they have begun to encourage.

scholarly journals A concise review of lobster utilization by worldwide human populations from prehistory to the modern era

2015 ◽  
Vol 72 (suppl_1) ◽  
pp. i7-i21 ◽  
Author(s):  
Ehud Spanier ◽  
Kari L. Lavalli ◽  
Jason S. Goldstein ◽  
Johan C. Groeneveld ◽  
Gareth L. Jordaan ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
20Th Century ◽  
18Th Century ◽  
Fishing Effort ◽  
Human Populations ◽  
Ancient Greek ◽  
Long Distance ◽  
Economic Resource ◽  
European Contact ◽  
Long Distance Transport ◽  
History Of

Abstract Lobsters are important resources throughout the world's oceans, providing food security, employment, and a trading commodity. Whereas marine biologists generally focus on modern impacts of fisheries, here we explore the deep history of lobster exploitation by prehistorical humans and ancient civilizations, through the first half of the 20th century. Evidence of lobster use comprises midden remains, artwork, artefacts, writings about lobsters, and written sources describing the fishing practices of indigenous peoples. Evidence from archaeological dig sites is potentially biased because lobster shells are relatively thin and easily degraded in most midden soils; in some cases, they may have been used as fertilizer for crops instead of being dumped in middens. Lobsters were a valuable food and economic resource for early coastal peoples, and ancient Greek and Roman Mediterranean civilizations amassed considerable knowledge of their biology and fisheries. Before European contact, lobsters were utilized by indigenous societies in the Americas, southern Africa, Australia, and New Zealand at seemingly sustainable levels, even while other fish and molluscan species may have been overfished. All written records suggest that coastal lobster populations were dense, even in the presence of abundant and large groundfish predators, and that lobsters were much larger than at present. Lobsters gained a reputation as “food for the poor” in 17th and 18th century Europe and parts of North America, but became a fashionable seafood commodity during the mid-19th century. High demand led to intensified fishing effort with improved fishing gear and boats, and advances in preservation and long-distance transport. By the early 20th century, coastal stocks were overfished in many places and average lobster size was significantly reduced. With overfishing came attempts to regulate fisheries, which have varied over time and have met with limited success.

scholarly journals SPIRITUAL VERSES ABOUT TSAREVICH JOASAPH: PLOTS AND METRICAL MODELS

2021 ◽  
Vol 17 (49) ◽  
pp. 88-131
Author(s):  
Alexander Petrov ◽  
Keyword(s):  
20Th Century ◽  
18Th Century ◽  
Literary Tradition ◽  
Literary Texts ◽  
Complex Nature ◽  
Folk Culture ◽  
History Of ◽  
Supplementary Material ◽  
The 19Th Century ◽  
Selection Of

The article considers the problem of the development of metrical forms of the cycle of folklore spiritual verses about Tsarevich Joasaph. Spiritual verses related to the literary tradition are used as supplementary material. The aim of the research is to trace the evolution of the metrics of folklore spiritual verses about Tsarevich Joasaph in the context of the history of Russian versification. The tasks of the research are the formation of a database of texts, differentiation of the texts into thematic groups, selection of method of work, and the analysis of folk and literary variants. The research methodology is determined by its complex nature, being at the intersection of folklore, linguistics, and literary studies. Taking into account the heterogeneity of the material, special methods are used for texts created within the framework of different systems of versification: syllabic, accentual, and syllabic-accentual. The entire corpus of texts consists of seven types of plots and can be divided into metrical groups depending on the time and the environment of their creation. The earliest known text dates from the 16th century; it is a free, non-rhymed accentual verse. A significant corpus of texts was created in the 17th century, in line with the literary syllabic system of versification; these are spiritual verses with 8 or 13 syllables per line. Some of these were assimilated by folk culture and subsequently lost their syllabic equality of lines, becoming close to the accentual system. Literary texts of the 18th–19th centuries are closer to the syllabic-accentual system; sometimes they include polymetric poetic forms. Folklore texts collected in the 19th–20th centuries are based mainly on the accentual system of versification (dolnik, taktovik, accentual verse); however, as we move towards the 20th century, syllabic-accentual tendencies also intensify in this area. In the 20th century, the tradition of spiritual poetry was based on syllabic-accentual models borrowed from the works of Russian classics. The long history of the existence of this poetic cycle is, in general, in line with the evolution of Russian versification. At the same time, if the syllabic-accentual verse has been formed since the 18th century in the literary tradition of spiritual poetry, then in folklore it spread relatively late. Reliable examples of syllabic-accentual versification are found in folklore spiritual verses about Tsarevich Joasaph from the second half of the 19th century.

scholarly journals Paganate kookidest seakõrvadeni. Transkultuuriline rännak ühe toidu jälgedes läbi sajandite ja kokaraamatute

2017 ◽  
pp. 16-33
Author(s):  
Inna Põltsam-Jürjo
Keyword(s):  
20Th Century ◽  
19Th Century ◽  
Middle Ages ◽  
18Th Century ◽  
Cultural Exchange ◽  
Food History ◽  
Early 19Th Century ◽  
History Of ◽  
The Common ◽  
19Th And 20Th Century

From “heathens’ cakes” to “pig’s ears”: tracing a food’s journey across cultures, centuries and cookbooks It is intriguing from the perspective of food history to find in 19th and 20th century Estonian recipe collections the same foods – that is, foods sharing the same names – found back in European cookbooks of the 14th and 15th centuries. It is noteworthy that they have survived this long, and invites a closer study of the phenomenon. For example, 16th century sources contain a record about the frying of heathen cakes, a kind of fritter, in Estonia. A dish by the same name is also found in 18th and 19th century recipe collections. It is a noteworthy phenomenon for a dish to have such a long history in Estonian cuisine, spanning centuries in recipe collections, and merits a closer look. Medieval European cookbooks listed two completely different foods under the name of heathen cakes and both were influenced from foods from the east. It is likely that the cakes made it to Tallinn and finer Estonian cuisine through Hanseatic merchants. It is not ultimately clear whether a single heathen cake recipe became domesticated in these parts already in the Middle Ages. In any case, heathen cakes would remain in Estonian cuisine for several centuries. As late as the early 19th century, the name in the local Baltic German cuisine referred to a delicacy made of egg-based batter fried in oil. Starting from the 18th century, the history of these fritters in Estonian cuisine can be traced through cookbooks. Old recipe collections document the changes and development in the tradition of making these cakes. The traditions of preparing these cakes were not passed on only in time, but circulated within society, crossing social and class lines. Earlier known from the elites’ culture, the dish reached the tables of ordinary people in the late 19th and early 20th century. In Estonian conditions, it meant the dish also crossed ethnic lines – from the German elite to the Estonian common folk’s menus. In the course of adaptation process, which was dictated and guided by cookbooks and cooking courses, the name of the dish changed several times (heydenssche koken, klenätid, Räderkuchen, rattakokid, seakõrvad), and changes also took place in the flavour nuances (a transition from spicier, more robust favours to milder ones) and even the appearance of the cakes. The story of the heathen cakes or pig’s ears in Estonian cuisine demonstrates how long and tortuous an originally elite dish can be as it makes its way to the tables of the common folk. The domestication and adaptation of such international recipes in the historical Estonian cuisine demonstrates the transregional cultural exchange, as well as culinary mobility and communication.

Visual Thinking in Mathematics

Philosophy ◽  
2019 ◽  
Author(s):  
Jessica Carter
Keyword(s):  
20Th Century ◽  
Euclidean Geometry ◽  
18Th Century ◽  
History Of Mathematics ◽  
Mathematical Practice ◽  
Visual Representations ◽  
Visual Thinking ◽  
General Acceptance ◽  
History Of ◽  
Euclid’S Elements

In contemporary philosophy, “visual thinking in mathematics” refers to studies of the kinds and roles of visual representations in mathematics. Visual representations include both external representations (i.e., diagrams) and mental visualization. Currently, three main areas and questions are being investigated. The first concerns the roles of diagrams, or the diagram-based reasoning, found in Euclid’s Elements. Second is the epistemic role of diagrams: the question of whether reasoning based on diagrams can be rigorous. This debate includes the question of whether beliefs based on visual input can be justified, and whether visual perception may lead to mathematical knowledge. The third observes that diagrams abound in (contemporary) mathematical practice, and so tries to understand the role they play, going beyond the traditional debates on the legitimacy of using diagrams in mathematical proofs. Looking at the history of mathematics, one will find that it is only recently that diagrammatic proofs have become discredited. For about 2,000 years, Euclid’s Elements was conceived as the paradigm of (mathematical) rigorous reasoning, and so until the 18th century, Euclidean geometry served as the foundation of many areas of mathematics. One includes the early history of analysis, where the study of curves draws on results from (Euclidean) geometry. During the 18th and 19th centuries, however, diagrams gradually disappear from mathematical texts, and around 1900 one finds the famous statements of Pasch and Hilbert claiming that proofs must not rely on figures. The development of formal logic during the 20th century further contributed to a general acceptance of a view that the only value of figures, or diagrams, is heuristic, and that they have no place in mathematical rigorous proofs. A proof, according to this view, consists of a discrete sequence of sentences and is a symbolic object. In the latter half of the 20th century, philosophers, sensitive to the practice of mathematics, started to object to this view, leading to the emergence of the study of visual thinking in mathematics.

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