Based on 4-year field observations of yellow ground squirrels (Spermophilus fulvus (Lichtenstein, 1823)), we determined whether female reproductive effort, annual reproductive success, and survival were dependent on age, body condition, time of emergence from hibernation, and previous reproduction. The probability of weaning a litter did not vary with female age, body condition, time of emergence, or previous reproduction. Litter size, litter mass, and offspring survival did not vary with age, whereas individual offspring mass was lower in yearlings than in older females. Body condition upon emergence had no effect on litter size, litter mass, offspring mass, and survival. Reproduction did not influence female survival, physical condition upon emergence next spring, or subsequent reproductive efforts. The only factor that affected the extent of reproductive effort and offspring survival was the date of emergence: the later a female emerged, the lower the total and mean offspring mass, and fewer offspring survived. The modulation of reproduction in female S. fulvus by only the timing of vernal emergence and independent of other individual characteristics can be explained by the high costs of missed reproductive opportunity because of short longevity combined with low costs of reproduction when resources are abundant enough to meet both somatic and reproductive needs.
Maternal investment, sibling competition, and offspring survival with increasing litter size and parity in pigs (Sus scrofa)