In the orthopedic and dental fields, simultaneously conferring titanium (Ti) and its alloy implants with antibacterial and bone-bonding capabilities is an outstanding challenge. In the present study, we developed a novel combined solution and heat treatment that controllably incorporates 0.7% to 10.5% of iodine into Ti and its alloys by ion exchange with calcium ions in a bioactive calcium titanate. The treated metals formed iodine-containing calcium-deficient calcium titanate with abundant Ti-OH groups on their surfaces. High-resolution XPS analysis revealed that the incorporated iodine ions were mainly positively charged. The surface treatment also induced a shift in the isoelectric point toward a higher pH, which indicated a prevalence of basic surface functionalities. The Ti loaded with 8.6% iodine slowly released 5.6 ppm of iodine over 90 days and exhibited strong antibacterial activity (reduction rate >99%) against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), S. aureus, Escherichia coli, and S. epidermidis. A long-term stability test of the antibacterial activity on MRSA showed that the treated Ti maintained a >99% reduction until 3 months, and then it gradually decreased after 6 months (to a 97.3% reduction). There was no cytotoxicity in MC3T3-E1 or L929 cells, whereas apatite formed on the treated metal in a simulated body fluid within 3 days. It is expected that the iodine-carrying Ti and its alloys will be particularly useful for orthopedic and dental implants since they reliably bond to bone and prevent infection owing to their apatite formation, cytocompatibility, and sustainable antibacterial activity.
High and long-term antibacterial activity against Escherichia coli via synergy between the antibiotic penicillin G and its carrier ZnAl layered double hydroxide
