Eating with a smaller spoon decreases bite size, eating rate and ad libitum food intake in healthy young males

AbstractThere is a paucity of data examining the effect of cutlery size on the microstructure of within-meal eating behaviour or food intake. Therefore, the present studies examined how manipulation of spoon size influenced these eating behaviour measures in lean young men. In study one, subjects ate a semi-solid porridge breakfast ad libitum, until satiation. In study two, subjects ate a standardised amount of porridge, with mean bite size and mean eating rate covertly measured by observation through a one-way mirror. Both studies involved subjects completing a familiarisation visit and two experimental visits, where they ate with a teaspoon (SMALL) or dessert spoon (LARGE), in randomised order. Subjective appetite measures (hunger, fullness, desire to eat and satisfaction) were made before and after meals. In study one, subjects ate 8 % less food when they ate with the SMALL spoon (SMALL 532 (SD 189) g; LARGE 575 (SD 227) g; P=0·006). In study two, mean bite size (SMALL 10·5 (SD 1·3) g; LARGE 13·7 (SD 2·6) g; P<0·001) and eating rate (SMALL 92 (SD 25) g/min; LARGE 108 (SD 29) g/min; P<0·001) were reduced in the SMALL condition. There were no condition or interaction effects for subjective appetite measures. These results suggest that eating with a small spoon decreases ad libitum food intake, possibly via a cascade of effects on within-meal eating microstructure. A small spoon might be a practical strategy for decreasing bite size and eating rate, likely increasing oral processing, and subsequently decreasing food intake, at least in lean young men.

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Eating behaviour and retro-nasal aroma release in normal-weight and overweight adults: a pilot study

British Journal Of Nutrition ◽

10.1017/s0007114511000146 ◽

2011 ◽

Vol 106 (2) ◽

pp. 297-306 ◽

Cited By ~ 13

Author(s):

Nicolien Zijlstra ◽

Andrea Johanna Bukman ◽

Monica Mars ◽

Annette Stafleu ◽

Rianne M. A. J. Ruijschop ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Food Intake ◽

Weight Status ◽

Eating Behaviour ◽

Normal Weight ◽

Eating Rate ◽

Eating Behaviours ◽

Aroma Release ◽

Bite Size ◽

Significant Difference

Eating rate and bite size are important factors affecting food intake, and we hypothesise the underlying role of oral sensory exposure in this. However, the latter currently lacks objective measuring parameters, but an interesting measure could be the extent ofin vivoretro-nasal aroma release. Second, the literature is ambiguous about overweight subjects differing from normal-weight subjects in eating behaviour. Consequently, we investigated: (1) whether eating behaviour (food intake, eating rate, bite size, number of bites and meal duration) relates to weight status and (2) whether the extent of retro-nasal aroma release relates to eating behaviour and weight status. A matched group (sex, age and dietary restraint) of twenty-seven normal-weight (BMI 21·8 (sd1·6) kg/m2) and twenty-seven overweight/obese subjects (BMI 30·5 (sd5·8) kg/m2) consumed a spiced rice meal and apple pie yogurt on separate test days. The extent of retro-nasal aroma release was measured on a third test day. Mean bite size for spiced rice was significantly (P = 0·03) larger in overweight/obese (10·3 (sd3·2) g)v.normal-weight subjects (8·7 (sd2·1) g). There were no other significant differences in eating behaviour or retro-nasal aroma release between the groups. Eating behaviours were not correlated with BMI or retro-nasal aroma release. Subjects showed consistent eating behaviour for both test products. Eating behaviour might be a characteristic of an individual but not by definition a characteristic for a group of people based on their weight. Given the large sample sizes, necessary according toa posteriorisample size calculations, one needs to consider the relevance of finding a statistically significant difference in eating behaviour between the weight groups in a laboratory setting.

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Liquid foods result in higher ad libitum food intake than semi-solid foods because of a higher eating rate

Appetite ◽

10.1016/j.appet.2007.09.061 ◽

2008 ◽

Vol 50 (2-3) ◽

pp. 567 ◽

Cited By ~ 2

Author(s):

N. Zijlstra ◽

M. Mars ◽

R.A. De Wijk ◽

M.S. Westerterp-plantenga ◽

C. De Graaf

Keyword(s):

Food Intake ◽

Eating Rate ◽

Solid Foods ◽

Liquid Foods ◽

Ad Libitum ◽

Semi Solid

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Acute Effects of Protein Source on Appetite and Subsequent Food Intake in Healthy Adults (P08-066-19)

Current Developments in Nutrition ◽

10.1093/cdn/nzz044.p08-066-19 ◽

2019 ◽

Vol 3 (Supplement_1) ◽

Author(s):

Jess Gwin ◽

Heather Leidy

Keyword(s):

Food Intake ◽

Soy Protein Isolate ◽

Protein Isolate ◽

Healthy Adults ◽

Blood Sampling ◽

Protein Source ◽

Reduce Food Intake ◽

Acute Effects ◽

Ad Libitum ◽

Desire To Eat

Abstract Objectives The purpose of this study was to examine the acute effects of consuming isocaloric, higher-protein breakfast shakes varying in protein source on appetite, satiety, and subsequent breakfast and lunch food intake in healthy adults. Methods Thirty-two adults (Age: 25 ± 1y; BMI: 24.2 ± 0.5 kg/m2) randomly consumed 250 kcal higher-protein breakfast shakes (24 g total protein; 17 g CHO; 9 g fat), varying only in protein source (whey protein isolate, WHEY; soy protein isolate, SOY; Micellar Casein, CAS; pea protein isolate, PEA; and milk protein isolate; MILK) for 3 days/shake. On day 4, the participants completed a 4-h testing day that included the consumption of the respective shake followed by blood sampling and questionnaires taken every 30 min to assess appetite and satiety. At the end of the testing day, an ad libitum lunch was provided. In addition, we sought to assess whether the study shakes consumed as breakfast preloads reduce food intake within the breakfast eating occasion. Thus, on day 5, the respective shake was consumed 30 min before an ad libitum breakfast. Results Postprandial differences in morning fullness and desire to eat were detected between protein shakes. Specifically, MILK led to greater 4-h fullness vs. WHEY, SOY, and PEA (all, P < 0.05) but not vs. CAS. CAS led to greater fullness vs. SOY (P < 0.05). In addition, MILK, CAS, and PEA led to greater decreases in 4-h desire to eat vs. SOY (all, P < 0.05). No differences in hunger, prospective food consumption, or food cravings were detected. At the subsequent lunch meal, the participants consumed on average 750 ± 70 kcal with no differences observed between shakes. Lastly, regardless of the protein source within the preloads, the participants consumed an additional +280 ± 50 kcal from other breakfast foods. Blood sampling analyses of metabolic analytes and appetite hormones are on-going. Conclusions Although protein source differences within isocaloric, higher-protein breakfast shakes influenced appetite responses throughout the morning, subsequent breakfast and lunch intake was not modified. Funding Sources Leprino Foods.

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Effect of oral or intragastric delivery of the bitter tastant quinine on food intake and appetite sensations: a randomised crossover trial

British Journal Of Nutrition ◽

10.1017/s0007114520002536 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 125 (1) ◽

pp. 92-100

Author(s):

Tim Klaassen ◽

Daniel Keszthelyi ◽

Annick M. E. Alleleyn ◽

Ellen Wilms ◽

Aalt Bast ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Food Intake ◽

Crossover Trial ◽

Eating Behaviour ◽

Intragastric Administration ◽

Taste Receptors ◽

Sham Feeding ◽

Intraduodenal Infusion ◽

Desire To Eat ◽

Analogue Scales ◽

Stimulation Of

AbstractStimulation of gastrointestinal taste receptors affects eating behaviour. Intraduodenal infusion of tastants leads to increased satiation and reduced food intake, whereas intraileal infusion of tastants does not affect eating behaviour. Currently, it is unknown whether oral- or intragastric administration of tastants induces a larger effect on eating behaviour. This study investigated the effects of oral- and/or intragastric administration of quinine on food intake, appetite sensations and heart rate variability (HRV). In a blinded randomised crossover trial, thirty-two healthy volunteers participated in four interventions with a 1-week washout: oral placebo and intragastric placebo (OPGP), oral quinine and intragastric placebo (OQGP), oral placebo and intragastric quinine (OPGQ) and oral quinine and intragastric quinine (OQGQ). On test days, 150 min after a standardised breakfast, subjects ingested a capsule containing quinine or placebo and were sham-fed a mixture of quinine or placebo orally. At 50 min after intervention, subjects received an ad libitum meal to measure food intake. Visual analogue scales for appetite sensations were collected, and HRV measurements were performed at regular intervals. Oral and/or intragastric delivery of the bitter tastant quinine did not affect food intake (OPGP: 3273·6 (sem 131·8) kJ, OQGP: 3072·7 (sem 132·2) kJ, OPGQ: 3289·0 (sem 132·6) kJ and OQGQ: 3204·1 (sem 133·1) kJ, P = 0·069). Desire to eat and hunger decreased after OQGP and OPGQ compared with OPGP (P < 0·001 and P < 0·05, respectively), whereas satiation, fullness and HRV did not differ between interventions. In conclusion, sole oral sham feeding with and sole intragastric delivery of quinine decreased desire to eat and hunger, without affecting food intake, satiation, fullness or HRV.

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How does food-cue exposure lead to larger meal sizes?

British Journal Of Nutrition ◽

10.1017/s0007114508978296 ◽

2008 ◽

Vol 100 (6) ◽

pp. 1325-1332 ◽

Cited By ~ 79

Author(s):

Danielle Ferriday ◽

Jeffrey M. Brunstrom

Keyword(s):

Cognitive Task ◽

Cue Reactivity ◽

Portion Size ◽

Restrained Eaters ◽

Cue Exposure ◽

Portion Sizes ◽

Before And After ◽

Ad Libitum ◽

Desire To Eat ◽

Subsequent Intake

Exposure to the sight and smell of food influences our momentary desire to consume it. This study explored the process by which cue exposure promotes greater consumption of food. Three hypotheses were explored, cue exposure: (i) increases the planned consumption of food; (ii) increases tolerance of larger portion sizes; (iii) arrests the development of satiety. Female participants (n50) were each tested in two conditions. In a ‘cue condition’ they were exposed to the sight and smell of pizza for 60 s. Before and after this period they provided information about prospective and maximum tolerated portion sizes and their desire to eat pizza and other non-cued foods. Participants then consumed a fixed portion of pizza, rated their hunger and were finally offeredad libitumaccess to pizza. In the ‘no-cue condition’, cue exposure was replaced with a cognitive task. Cueing had little effect on tolerance of larger portion sizes or on hunger after consuming the fixed portion. Instead, it increased prospective pizza portion size and subsequent intake of pizza. Together, these results suggest that cueing increases the amount of food that people actively plan to eat. This plan is then executed, leading to greater intake. Pizza cueing also increased prospective portion size of other foods. Thus, contrary to previous reports, effects of exposure may generalise to other foods. Finally, we found evidence that restrained eaters are less ‘cue reactive’ than unrestrained eaters. In future, our approach might be adapted to consider whether heightened ‘cue reactivity’ represents a risk factor for obesity.

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Interaction of mealtime ad libitum beverage and food intake with meal advancement in healthy young men and women

Physiology & Behavior ◽

10.1016/j.physbeh.2015.02.023 ◽

2015 ◽

Vol 143 ◽

pp. 39-44

Author(s):

Dalia El Khoury ◽

Shirin Panahi ◽

Bohdan L. Luhovyy ◽

H. Douglas Goff ◽

G. Harvey Anderson

Keyword(s):

Food Intake ◽

Young Men ◽

Men And Women ◽

Ad Libitum

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Do Behaviors Such As Eating Faster or Taking Larger Bites Moderate the Portion Size Effect?

Current Developments in Nutrition ◽

10.1093/cdn/nzab055_018 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 5 (Supplement_2) ◽

pp. 1208-1208

Author(s):

Paige Cunningham ◽

Liane Roe ◽

Kathleen Keller ◽

Anouk Hendriks ◽

Barbara Rolls

Keyword(s):

Size Effect ◽

Random Coefficients ◽

Portion Size ◽

Controlled Study ◽

Eating Rate ◽

Bite Size ◽

Targeted Interventions ◽

Meal Intake ◽

Before And After ◽

Negative Effect

Abstract Objectives Individuals eat more when served larger portions, and this may be influenced by eating-related microstructural behaviors. In a controlled study, we explored whether microstructural components of eating such as eating rate, bite size, bite count, and meal duration influenced the portion size effect. Methods In a randomized crossover design, 44 adults aged 18 to 68 y (66% women; 45% with overweight or obesity) ate lunch in the laboratory once a week for four weeks. The meal consisted of a single dish of pasta (1.4 kcal/g) that was varied in portion size (400,500, 600, or 700 g) along with ∼700 g of water. Intake was assessed by weighing items before and after the meal. To characterize eating microstructure, meals were video-recorded to assess bite counts and meal duration, which were used to calculate mean eating rate (g/min) and mean bite size (g/bite). The influence of eating microstructure on the portion size effect was analyzed by random coefficients models. Results As larger portions were served, meal intake increased in a curvilinear manner (P < 0.0001). Compared to the smallest portion, intake of the largest portion increased by a mean (±SEM) of 123 ± 16 g (43%). As portions were increased, there were similar increases in bite count (35%) and meal duration (38%; both P < 0.0001), but only small increases in mean bite size (8%; P = 0.019) and no significant change in eating rate (P = 0.92). Measures of eating microstructure did not moderate the portion size effect but did have main effects on intake across all portions. Individuals ate more at the meal when they ate faster, took larger bites, took more bites, or ate for longer (all P < 0.0001). Body mass index did not influence eating microstructure or the strength of the portion size effect but had a modest negative effect on intake across all meals (−5.9 ± 2.7 g/unit increase in BMI; P = 0.046). Conclusions Eating-related microstructural behaviors influenced meal intake across portions, but did not moderate the effect of portion size on intake. Individuals who ate faster and took larger bites ate more across all portions, possibly as a result of reduced oro-sensory exposure, which can delay meal termination. Targeted interventions to alter components of eating microstructure have the potential as strategies to reduce overconsumption. Funding Sources NIDDK, Jenny Craig.

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First and second meal effects of pulses on blood glucose, appetite, and food intake at a later meal

Applied Physiology Nutrition and Metabolism ◽

10.1139/h11-071 ◽

2011 ◽

Vol 36 (5) ◽

pp. 634-642 ◽

Cited By ~ 28

Author(s):

Rebecca C. Mollard ◽

Christina L. Wong ◽

Bohdan L. Luhovyy ◽

G. Harvey Anderson

Keyword(s):

Blood Glucose ◽

Food Intake ◽

Test Meal ◽

Fixed Size ◽

Tomato Sauce ◽

Beneficial Effects ◽

Before And After ◽

Pulse Type ◽

Effect Of Treatment ◽

Ad Libitum

Pulses are low-glycemic appetite-suppressing foods, but it is not known whether these properties persist after being consumed as part of a meal and after a second meal. The objective of this study was to determine the effects of a fixed-size pulse meal on appetite and blood glucose (BG) before and after an ad libitum test meal (pizza) and on food intake (FI) at the test meal. Males (n = 25; 21.3 ± 0.5 years; 21.6 ± 0.3 kg·m–2) randomly consumed 4 isocaloric meals: chickpea; lentil; yellow split pea; and macaroni and cheese (control). Commercially available canned pulses provided 250 kcal, and were consumed with macaroni and tomato sauce. FI was measured at a pizza meal 260 min after consumption of the isocaloric meal. BG and appetite were measured from 0 to 340 min. The lentil and yellow pea, but not chickpea, treatments led to lower appetite ratings during the 260 min prepizza meal period, and less FI at the pizza meal, compared with macaroni and cheese (p < 0.05). All pulse treatments lowered BG immediately following consumption (at 20 min) (p < 0.05), but there was no effect of treatment on prepizza meal BG AUC (p = 0.07). Immediately after the pizza meal, BG was lower following the chickpea and lentil treatments, but not the yellow pea treatment (p < 0.05). Postpizza meal BG AUC was lower following the chickpea and lentil treatments than in the yellow pea treatment (p < 0.05). The beneficial effects of consuming a pulse meal on appetite, FI at a later meal, and the BG response to a later meal are dependent on pulse type.

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