The egg sorting function of the uterine bell of Polymorphus minutus (Acanthocephala)

Parasitology ◽  
1970 ◽  
Vol 61 (1) ◽  
pp. 111-126 ◽  
Author(s):  
P. J. Whitfield
Keyword(s):  
Adult Female ◽  
Muscular Activity ◽  
Body Cavity ◽  
Final Host ◽  
The Body ◽  
Duct Cells ◽  
Age Structures

An adult female Polymorphus minutus releases only mature eggs into the intestine of its final host. These eggs come from the pool of eggs in the body cavity of the worm which contains only about 30% of mature eggs, the rest being immature. An analysis of the age structures of the egg populations in the body cavity and the uterus shows that an assortment of mature and immature eggs has taken place as the eggs pass from the body cavity to the uterus. The uterus contains only mature eggs and these are the eggs which are about to be released. The only pathway whereby eggs can enter the uterus from the body cavity is through the uterine bell. This suggests that it is the uterine bell which is able to select mature eggs from the mixture of eggs in the body cavity.A uterine bell in vitro engages in precisely patterned muscular activity which propels eggs through its branching lumen. In one part of the bell (the grooves between the median wall cells and the lappets of the uterine duct cells), the patterned muscular activity passes mature eggs into the uterus and immature eggs back into the body cavity to complete their development. The greater length of mature eggs seems to be the character which enables them to be ‘recognized‘ by the uterine bell.

Studies on Tapeworm Physiology

1946 ◽  
Vol 23 (1) ◽  
pp. 47-70 ◽  
Author(s):  
J. D. SMYTH
Keyword(s):  
Histological Examination ◽  
Gasterosteus Aculeatus ◽  
Body Cavity ◽  
Final Host ◽  
The Body ◽  
Normal Behaviour ◽  
The Mean ◽  
Peptone Broth

A technique has been elaborated that enabled the plerocercoid larvae of Schistocephalus solidus to be removed from the body cavity of Gasterosteus aculeatus without bacterial contamination. Larvae were cultured in plugged test-tubes under completely aseptic conditions in a variety of balanced salines, glucose salines and nutrient peptone broth. The most successful results were obtained with peptone broth at room temperatures (16-19° C) in which plerocercoids remained active and showed normal behaviour for periods up to 300 days. In ¾ strength Locke's solution, which was found by experiment to be approximately isotonic with Schistocephalus (δ = -0.44 ± 0.02° C), the mean period of normal behaviour was 114 days. In the remaining saline and saline-glucose media, the mean viability and period of normal behaviour was considerably less. In the plerocercoid, histological examination revealed that the genitalia are in an immature condition. During cultivation at room temperatures, the genitalia remained in this undifferentiated condition and showed no signs of undergoing spermatogenesis, oogenesis or vitellogenesis. Plerocercoids were induced to develop into sexually mature adults by raising the temperature of cultivation in peptone broth to 40° C. (i.e. the body temperature of the final host in the natural life cycle). Oviposition took place after 48-60 hr. at this temperature, and histological examination revealed that spermatogenesis, oogenesis, vitellogenesis and shell formation had taken place in a normal manner. The viability of artificially matured Schistocephalus was 4-6 days in vitro--a period equivalent to the viability of the adult in vivo. The eversion of the cirris was observed in each proglottid after 40 hr. cultivation at 40° C. During the sexual process the cirris everted and invaginated at the rate of about once per second. Cross-fertilization between segments of the same worm or with segments of another worm was not observed. Except for one specimen in ¾ strength Locke's solution which underwent spermatogenesis and partial vitellogenesis, larvae cultured in salines or glucose salines at 40° C. died within 1-3 days without further development. Attempts to hatch out the eggs produced by the cultivation of larvae in peptone broth at 40° C. proved unsuccessful. Histological examination revealed that spermatozoa had not been taken into the vagina. It was concluded that the eggs were not fertilized owing to the failure of normal copulation to take place.

Studies on Tapeworm Physiology

1949 ◽  
Vol 26 (1) ◽  
pp. 1-15
Author(s):  
J. D. SMYTH
Keyword(s):  
Bacterial Infections ◽  
Detrimental Effect ◽  
Horse Serum ◽  
Body Cavity ◽  
The Body ◽  
Nutrient Media ◽  
Medium Strength ◽  
By Products ◽  
Histochemical Examination

1. Plerocercoid larvae of the pseudophyllidean cestode Ligula intestinalis from the body cavity of roach, were cultured in vitro at 40°C. in a variety of saline and nutrient media. About 65% of such cultures were aseptic. 2. During cultivation, larvae produced acid by-products (unidentified) and the pH fell rapidly. 3. The presence of these acid by-products slowed down development, or, if present in sufficient quantity, caused death. 4. In order to obtain development in nutrient media in a period (3 days) comparable to that required in a bird (the normal host) it was necessary to renew the medium 24-hourly. 5. 6% of the eggs produced from a worm cultured in horse serum were fertile. Fertile eggs were never obtained from larvae cultured in any other media. 6. Certain bacterial infections had no apparent detrimental effect on development, but others were toxic. 7. Some larvae underwent development in non-nutrient medium (¾ strength Locke's solution). The exact conditions under which this occurred was not determined. 8. Fragments (3 cm. long), of larvae or larvae with either scolex or posterior half removed, underwent development to the stage of oviposition in nutrient media. 9. Histochemical examination revealed that the plerocercoid larvae were almost fat-free. During cultivation, very large quantities of cytoplasmic fat were produced the quantity being proportional to the duration of cultivation. Fat was produced even under starvation conditions (i.e. during cultivation in saline) and can be considered a metabolic by-product. 10. The fresh plerocercoid contained great quantities of glycogen in the parenchyma and muscle regions. After cultivation in nutrient or saline media, considerable quantities were still present.

Studies on tapeworm physiology

Parasitology ◽  
1947 ◽  
Vol 38 (3) ◽  
pp. 173-181 ◽  
Author(s):  
J. D. Smyth
Keyword(s):  
Body Cavity ◽  
The Body ◽  
Cell Stage ◽  
Normal Manner ◽  
Receptaculum Seminis ◽  
Larval Condition ◽  
Aseptic Conditions ◽  
Sexually Mature ◽  
Peptone Broth

The plerocercoid larvae of the pseudophyllidean cestode Ligula intestinalie have been removed from the body-cavity of the roach, Rutilua rutilus, and cultured in vitro under aseptic conditions, using a technique similar to that successfully applied to Schistocephalus solidus.In the larval condition, the genitalia are in a primitive, immature condition, with the testes, ovaries and yolk-glands only partially developed.Larvae were cultured in peptone-broth in plugged tubes at a temperature of 40° C, i.e. the body temperature of birds in which the plerocercoids normally develop into adult worms.Three of the nine larvae used became sexually mature after 7 days' cultivation, and oviposition took place. Copulation between successive genitalia of the same worm or with genitalia of another worm in the same culture tube was not observed.Histological examination revealed that spermatogenesis, oogenesis, vitellogenesis and shell formation had apparently taken place in a normal manner. The testes contained giant polyploid cells as well as mature spermatozoa. The receptaculum seminis contained no spermatozoa, from which it was concluded that fertilization had not taken place. This was confirmed by the fact that attempts to hatch out the eggs were unsuccessful. The unfertilized eggs, however, underwent parthenogenic development within the uterus as far as the two-cell stage. Of the remaining six larvae, four developed sufficiently to undergo eversion of the cirrus, but died without oviposition taking place.

First report of a gryporhynchid tapeworm (Cestoda: Cyclophyllidea) from New Zealand and from an eleotrid fish, described from metacestodes and in vitro-grown worms

2011 ◽  
Vol 86 (4) ◽  
pp. 453-464 ◽  
Author(s):  
B. Presswell ◽  
R. Poulin ◽  
H.S. Randhawa
Keyword(s):  
New Zealand ◽  
First Record ◽  
Small Subunit ◽  
Body Cavity ◽  
The Body ◽  
Species Determination ◽  
Fish Family ◽  
Rdna Sequences ◽  
Stage Of Development

AbstractMetacestodes are often found in the body cavity of the common bully (Gobiomorphus cotidianus McDowall), from freshwater habitats in Otago, New Zealand. Identification of metacestodes relies only on the number, size and shape of the rostellar hooks. To attempt species determination, we cultivated metacestodes in vitro for up to 23 days, during which they matured to at least the male stage of development, although female organs were not discernable. Identified as members of the genus Paradilepis Hsü, 1935 (family Gryporhynchidae), these specimens are compared to previously described species, in particular P. minima (Goss, 1940), from Australia, the closest species, both geographically and morphologically. Although the size of scolex, suckers and proglottids differ significantly from those of P. minima, we are cautious about interpreting ‘adults’ grown in vitro, because we are unsure whether the artificial conditions alter development. For this reason, and because of the lack of female organs, we refrain from erecting a new species, and refer to the specimens as Paradilepis cf. minima until such time as the adults are found in the definitive host. With this proviso we present here a description of the in vitro-grown worms and the metacestodes as a preliminary study of this cestode. A molecular analysis of small subunit (SSU) rDNA sequences, shows the position of P. cf. minima and another gryporhynchid, Neogryporhynchus cheilancristrotus (Wedl, 1855), to be equivocal, but confirms their exclusion from the Dilepididae and Hymenolepididae. This is the first record of a gryporhynchid from New Zealand, and the first from the fish family Eleotridae.

scholarly journals Studies on the Life Cycle of Some New Zealand Anisakidae (Nematoda)

2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
◽  
Rosemary Jennifer Hurst
Keyword(s):  
Life Cycle ◽  
New Zealand ◽  
Body Cavity ◽  
The Body ◽  
In Vitro Cultivation ◽  
Free Living ◽  
Larval Stages ◽  
Factors Influencing ◽  
Phocarctos Hookeri

<p>The life cycle of Anisakis simplex in New Zealand waters is described from observations on the morphology, distribution and behaviour of free-living and parasitic stages. Comparison with the life cyles of two other anisakids, Phocanema decipiens Myers 1959 and Thynnascaris adunca Rudolphi 1802 shows differences in distribution, degrees of host specificity, the status of invertebrate hosts, the factors influencing infestation levels of teleost hosts, and the location and pathological effects of infestation. Larval stages occurring in intermediate and paratenic hosts were identified by comparison of larval and adult morphometrics. A. simplex larvae were also positively identified by in vitro cultivation through to adults. Some morphometric variations compared to overseas descriptions are apparent. The ventriculus of A. simplex larvae is shorter relative to body length and the intestinal caecum of P. decipiens is longer relative to ventriculus length. Egg and free-living larval stages were obtained from in vitro cultivation of (A. simplex) and collection of eggs from mature adults from definitive hosts (T. adunca). Eggs of P. decipiens were not obtained. Eggs of A. simplex and T. adunca hatch in 8-11 days at 15 [degrees] C. A. simplex eggs hatch in 6 days at a temperature of 22 [degrees] C and did not hatch in 16 days at 10 [degrees] C. Eggs and free-living stage III larvae of A. simplex and T. adunca are similar in morphology with little differentiation of internal structures. Examination of the stomach contents of pelagic fish infested with anisakids indicated that possible intermediate hosts of A. simplex are the euphausiid Nyctiphanes australis and the decapod Munida gregaria. Possible hosts of T. adunca and M. gregaria are a wide variety of smaller zooplanktonic groups, e.g. decapod larvae and copepods. Larvae of A. simplex were found in one of 8850 N. australis; larvae of T. adunca were found in 69 of 3999 chaetognaths (Sagitta spp.) a medusa and a decapod larva. These larvae are morphologically similar to Stage III larvae from teleosts. No anisakids were found in 3956 Euphausia spp., 1147 M. gregaria and 740 prawns. Twenty five T. adunca larvae and adults were found in 818 freshly eaten M. gregaria in teleost stomachs, indicating that this invertebrate may act as a paratenic and a definitive host. Experimental infection of N. australis and M. gregaria with stage II larvae of A. simplex and T. adunca was unsuccessful. The location of anisakid infestation in three pelagic teleost species, Thyrsites atun, Trachurus novaezelandiae and Trachurus declivis is described. A. simplex larvae are found mainly in the body cavity of all species, at the posterior end of the stomach, with less than one percent occurring in the musculature. Distribution of A. simplex larvae does not change with increasing size of the host or increasing total worm burden. Thyrsites atun have a higher proportion of larvae in the stomach wall (8-13%) compared to Trachurus spp. (< 4%). T. adunca larvae are found infrequently in the body cavity of all three species, on the pyloric caeca and in the stomach wall. Adults and larvae of T. adunca are found more commonly in the alimentary canal, indicating that these teleosts are more important as definitive hosts in the life cycle of this anisakid. P. decipiens larvae are found only in Thyrsites atun and occur mainly in the muscles (98.5%). No quantitative pathogenic effects of anisakid infestation on these teleosts hosts were detected. The main factors influencing the infestation of the three teleost species are age of the host, locality and season. Sex of the host and depth (over the continental shelf, 0-250 m) are not important. A. simplex infestation increased with age in all host species examined, and was higher in Trachurus declivis from the southern-most locality, suggesting the existence of at least two distinct populations of this species. Significant differences in infestation of Thyrsites atun with P. decipiens suggests that this anisakid may be more common in southern localities also. The infestation of Thyrsites atun by larval and adult T. adunca in the alimentary canal is most influenced by season and closely related to diet. Nematode samples were obtained from the marine mammals Arctocephalus forsteri, Kogia breviceps and Phocarctos hookeri. Adult A. simplex were recorded from A. forsteri (a new host record) and Kogia breviceps; preadults from Phocarctos hookeri. Adult P. decipiens were recorded from Phocarctos hookeri; preadults from Arctocephalus forsteri and K. breviceps. Other anisakids found were Anisakis physeteris (Baylis 1923), Contracaecum osculatum Rudolphi 1802 and Pseudoterranova kogiae (Johnston and Mawson 1939) Mosgovoi 1951. These records are all new for the New Zealand region except P. decipiens from P. hookeri and C. osculatum from Arctocephalus forsteri. A. simplex and C. osculatum were found associated with gastric ulcers in Arctocephalus forsteri.</p>

scholarly journals Studies on the Life Cycle of Some New Zealand Anisakidae (Nematoda)

2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
◽  
Rosemary Jennifer Hurst
Keyword(s):  
Life Cycle ◽  
New Zealand ◽  
Body Cavity ◽  
The Body ◽  
In Vitro Cultivation ◽  
Free Living ◽  
Larval Stages ◽  
Factors Influencing ◽  
Phocarctos Hookeri

<p>The life cycle of Anisakis simplex in New Zealand waters is described from observations on the morphology, distribution and behaviour of free-living and parasitic stages. Comparison with the life cyles of two other anisakids, Phocanema decipiens Myers 1959 and Thynnascaris adunca Rudolphi 1802 shows differences in distribution, degrees of host specificity, the status of invertebrate hosts, the factors influencing infestation levels of teleost hosts, and the location and pathological effects of infestation. Larval stages occurring in intermediate and paratenic hosts were identified by comparison of larval and adult morphometrics. A. simplex larvae were also positively identified by in vitro cultivation through to adults. Some morphometric variations compared to overseas descriptions are apparent. The ventriculus of A. simplex larvae is shorter relative to body length and the intestinal caecum of P. decipiens is longer relative to ventriculus length. Egg and free-living larval stages were obtained from in vitro cultivation of (A. simplex) and collection of eggs from mature adults from definitive hosts (T. adunca). Eggs of P. decipiens were not obtained. Eggs of A. simplex and T. adunca hatch in 8-11 days at 15 [degrees] C. A. simplex eggs hatch in 6 days at a temperature of 22 [degrees] C and did not hatch in 16 days at 10 [degrees] C. Eggs and free-living stage III larvae of A. simplex and T. adunca are similar in morphology with little differentiation of internal structures. Examination of the stomach contents of pelagic fish infested with anisakids indicated that possible intermediate hosts of A. simplex are the euphausiid Nyctiphanes australis and the decapod Munida gregaria. Possible hosts of T. adunca and M. gregaria are a wide variety of smaller zooplanktonic groups, e.g. decapod larvae and copepods. Larvae of A. simplex were found in one of 8850 N. australis; larvae of T. adunca were found in 69 of 3999 chaetognaths (Sagitta spp.) a medusa and a decapod larva. These larvae are morphologically similar to Stage III larvae from teleosts. No anisakids were found in 3956 Euphausia spp., 1147 M. gregaria and 740 prawns. Twenty five T. adunca larvae and adults were found in 818 freshly eaten M. gregaria in teleost stomachs, indicating that this invertebrate may act as a paratenic and a definitive host. Experimental infection of N. australis and M. gregaria with stage II larvae of A. simplex and T. adunca was unsuccessful. The location of anisakid infestation in three pelagic teleost species, Thyrsites atun, Trachurus novaezelandiae and Trachurus declivis is described. A. simplex larvae are found mainly in the body cavity of all species, at the posterior end of the stomach, with less than one percent occurring in the musculature. Distribution of A. simplex larvae does not change with increasing size of the host or increasing total worm burden. Thyrsites atun have a higher proportion of larvae in the stomach wall (8-13%) compared to Trachurus spp. (< 4%). T. adunca larvae are found infrequently in the body cavity of all three species, on the pyloric caeca and in the stomach wall. Adults and larvae of T. adunca are found more commonly in the alimentary canal, indicating that these teleosts are more important as definitive hosts in the life cycle of this anisakid. P. decipiens larvae are found only in Thyrsites atun and occur mainly in the muscles (98.5%). No quantitative pathogenic effects of anisakid infestation on these teleosts hosts were detected. The main factors influencing the infestation of the three teleost species are age of the host, locality and season. Sex of the host and depth (over the continental shelf, 0-250 m) are not important. A. simplex infestation increased with age in all host species examined, and was higher in Trachurus declivis from the southern-most locality, suggesting the existence of at least two distinct populations of this species. Significant differences in infestation of Thyrsites atun with P. decipiens suggests that this anisakid may be more common in southern localities also. The infestation of Thyrsites atun by larval and adult T. adunca in the alimentary canal is most influenced by season and closely related to diet. Nematode samples were obtained from the marine mammals Arctocephalus forsteri, Kogia breviceps and Phocarctos hookeri. Adult A. simplex were recorded from A. forsteri (a new host record) and Kogia breviceps; preadults from Phocarctos hookeri. Adult P. decipiens were recorded from Phocarctos hookeri; preadults from Arctocephalus forsteri and K. breviceps. Other anisakids found were Anisakis physeteris (Baylis 1923), Contracaecum osculatum Rudolphi 1802 and Pseudoterranova kogiae (Johnston and Mawson 1939) Mosgovoi 1951. These records are all new for the New Zealand region except P. decipiens from P. hookeri and C. osculatum from Arctocephalus forsteri. A. simplex and C. osculatum were found associated with gastric ulcers in Arctocephalus forsteri.</p>

The bionomics and parasitic development of Tripius sciarae (Bovien) (Sphaerulariidae: Aphelenchoidea), a nematode parasite of sciarid flies (Sciaridae: Diptera)

Parasitology ◽  
1965 ◽  
Vol 55 (3) ◽  
pp. 559-569 ◽  
Author(s):  
George O. Poinar
Keyword(s):  
Adult Female ◽  
Body Wall ◽  
Pupal Stage ◽  
Body Cavity ◽  
The Body ◽  
National Institutes Of Health ◽  
New Host ◽  
Experimental Station ◽  
Rothamsted Experimental Station ◽  
Fat Bodies

After penetrating through the body wall into the haemocoel of Bradysia paupera, the fertilized female of Tipius sciarae increased in size and slowly expelled the enlarging uterine cells through the vulva.Within 7 days of penetration, the females were mature and began laying eggs into the haemocoel of the host. The eggs hatched in 3 days and, within 2 weeks, the host–s body was swarming with juvenile nematodes. The juveniles moulted three times in the body cavity of the host and 4th-stage forms emerged through ruptures in the intestine or body wall (in larval hosts) or were deposited on the surface of the soil (by adult female flies). They then moulted to adult forms while remaining ensheathed in their last juvenile cuticle, mated, and the fertilized infective females were ready to enter a new host.Most parasitized fly larvae died before reaching the pupal stage but some emerged as adults, still carrying the nematodes within them. All parasitized adult flies were sterile. Infested larvae had smaller fat bodies and adult histoblasts than normal larvae and took twice as long to develop.Preliminary tests suggested that this nematode may be useful in controlling sciarid gnats in glasshouses.T. sciarae (Bovien) and T. gibbosus (Leuckart) were compared.This work was done at Rothamsted Experimental Station, Harpenden, Herts, England, while the author held a postdoctoral grant from the National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland. I thank Mr F. G. W. Jones for a place in the Nematology Department, Dr Audrey Shepherd for supplying the New Blue R stain, Dr J. B. Goodey for advice, and Dr K. Lindhardt, Denmark, for the loaning of the late Dr Bovien–s slides of T. sciarae.

scholarly journals Cnidarian internal stinging mechanism

2008 ◽  
Vol 276 (1659) ◽  
pp. 1063-1067 ◽  
Author(s):  
Ami Schlesinger ◽  
Eliahu Zlotkin ◽  
Esti Kramarsky-Winter ◽  
Y Loya
Keyword(s):  
Artemia Salina ◽  
Body Cavity ◽  
Sea Anemone ◽  
The Body ◽  
Internal Tissue ◽  
Sea Anemones ◽  
First Report ◽  
Tissue Structures ◽  
Prey Items

Stinging mechanisms generally deliver venomous compounds to external targets. However, nematocysts, the microscopic stinging organelles that are common to all members of the phylum Cnidaria, occur and act in both external and internal tissue structures. This is the first report of such an internal piercing mechanism. This mechanism identifies prey items within the body cavity of the sea anemone and actively injects them with cytolytic venom compounds. Internal tissues isolated from sea anemones caused the degradation of live Artemia salina nauplii in vitro . When examined, the nauplii were found to be pierced by discharged nematocysts. This phenomenon is suggested to aid digestive phagocytic processes in a predator otherwise lacking the means to masticate its prey.

IMMUNE RESPONSES OF SOME INSECTS TO SOME BACTERIAL ANTIGENS

1959 ◽  
Vol 5 (2) ◽  
pp. 203-228 ◽  
Author(s):  
June M. Stephens
Keyword(s):  
Immune Responses ◽  
Galleria Mellonella ◽  
Body Cavity ◽  
The Body ◽  
Exact Nature ◽  
Bacterial Antigen ◽  
Bacterial Cells ◽  
Wax Moth

Pseudomonas aeruginosa (Schroeter) Migula antigen remained in the blood of larvae of the wax moth, Galleria mellonella (L.), during the resistant period of the insect. Bacterial antigen present in the immune blood produces agglutinating titers in rabbits about 10 times as great as those produced by an approximately equal volume of standard P. aeruginosa vaccine. Attempts to demonstrate the mechanism that enhances the antigen showed that the active portion was contained in the serum, that the action occurred within several hours in vivo and only reached the same level after 3 days in vitro mixture, and that the action was probably not caused by lysis of the bacterial cells and the consequent liberation of more antigen in the blood. Electrophoretic studies on the blood mixture indicated that the altered or enhanced antigen may be bound to a blood fraction, the exact nature of which was not determined. The larvae were actively or passively immunized against lethal doses of P. aeruginosa within 20 to 24 hours. Concentration of vaccine had little effect upon the degree of immunity conferred upon the larvae. The immunity lasted about three days and was more specific than nonspecific. The larvae were not actively protected against P. aeruginosa by introduction of albuminous foreign material into the body cavity. True antibodies were not detectable in the immune blood though the bactericidal action of immune blood was at least twice as great as that of normal blood. Preliminary investigations on immune responses of other lepidopterous insects to P. aeruginosa antigen and of the wax moth to antigens of some other Gram-negative bacteria indicated similar results.

scholarly journals Endothelial pulsatile shear stress is a backstop for COVID-19

2020 ◽  
Vol 4 (4) ◽  
pp. 391-399
Author(s):  
Marvin A. Sackner ◽  
Jose A. Adams
Keyword(s):  
Nitric Oxide ◽  
Shear Stress ◽  
Physical Inactivity ◽  
Muscular Activity ◽  
The Body ◽  
Diverse Populations ◽  
Extensive Investigation ◽  
Pulsatile Shear Stress

There has not been any means to inhibit replication of the SARS-CoV-2 virus responsible for the rapid, deadly spread of the COVID-19 pandemic and an effective, safe, tested across diverse populations vaccine still requires extensive investigation. This review deals with the repurpose of a wellness technology initially fabricated for combating physical inactivity by increasing muscular activity. Its action increases pulsatile shear stress (PSS) to the endothelium such that the bioavailability of nitric oxide (NO) and other mediators are increased throughout the body. In vitro evidence indicates that NO inhibits SARS-CoV-2 virus replication but there are no publications of NO delivery to the virus in vivo. It will be shown that increased PSS has potential in vivo to exert anti-viral properties of NO as well as to benefit endothelial manifestations of COVID-19 thereby serving as a safe and effective backstop.

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