1. On the Expiatory and Substitutionary Sacrifices of the Greeks

1875 ◽  
Vol 8 ◽  
pp. 535-537
Author(s):  
Donaldson
Keyword(s):  
The Other ◽  
Common People ◽  
The Subject ◽  
The Common ◽  
Food And Drink

The author gives the results of his examination of the subject in the following propositions:—1. That the sacrifices of the Greeks were offered to the gods with the idea that the food and drink would gratify them, and that the other offerings would in some way or other be pleasing to them; that the common ′people continued to offer up sacrifices with this belief till the end of Paganism; but that as the more cultivated classes came to believe that the gods did not stand in need of food, drink, or of gifts from them, substitutions became more and more general with them.

XXIII. On the water-barometer erected in the hall of the Royal Society

1832 ◽  
Vol 122 ◽  
pp. 539-574 ◽  
Keyword(s):  
Royal Society ◽  
Physical Science ◽  
The Other ◽  
Metallic Tube ◽  
French Academy ◽  
History Of ◽  
The Subject ◽  
The Common ◽  
Academy Of Sciences ◽  
Made In

I have for some time entertained an opinion, in common with some others who have turned their attention tot he subject, that a good series of observations with a Water-Barometer, accurately constructed, might throw some light upon several important points of physical science: amongst others, upon the tides of the atmosphere; the horary oscillations of the counterpoising column; the ascending and descending rate of its greater oscillations; and the tension of vapour at different atmospheric temperatures. I have sought in vain in various scientific works, and in the Transactions of Philosophical Societies, for the record of any such observations, or for a description of an instrument calculated to afford the required information with anything approaching to precision. In the first volume of the History of the French Academy of Sciences, a cursory reference is made, in the following words, to some experiments of M. Mariotte upon the subject, of which no particulars appear to have been preserved. “Le même M. Mariotte fit aussi à l’observatoire des experiences sur le baromètre ordinaire à mercure comparé au baromètre à eau. Dans l’un le mercure s’eléva à 28 polices, et dans Fautre l’eau fut a 31 pieds Cequi donne le rapport du mercure à l’eau de 13½ à 1.” Histoire de I'Acadérmie, tom. i. p. 234. It also appears that Otto Guricke constructed a philosophical toy for the amusement of himself and friends, upon the principle of the water-barometer; but the column of water probably in this, as in all the other instances which I have met with, was raised by the imperfect rarefaction of the air in the tube above it, or by filling with water a metallic tube, of sufficient length, cemented to a glass one at its upper extremity, and fitted with a stop-cock at each end; so that when full the upper one might be closed and the lower opened, when the water would fall till it afforded an equipoise to the pressure of the atmo­sphere. The imperfections of such an instrument, it is quite clear, would render it totally unfit for the delicate investigations required in the present state of science; as, to render the observations of any value, it is absolutely necessary that the water should be thoroughly purged of air, by boiling, and its insinuation or reabsorption effectually guarded against. I was convinced that the only chance of securing these two necessary ends, was to form the whole length of tube of one piece of glass, and to boil the water in it, as is done with mercury in the common barometer. The practical difficulties which opposed themselves to such a construction long appeared to me insurmount­able; but I at length contrived a plan for the purpose, which, having been honoured with the approval of the late Meteorological Committee of this Society, was ordered to be carried into execution by the President and Council.

Who Got There First

2000 ◽  
Author(s):  
John H. Lienhard
Keyword(s):  
Acid Solution ◽  
Electrical Current ◽  
Smithsonian Institution ◽  
Liquid Pool ◽  
The Other ◽  
Electric Contact ◽  
Variable Resistance ◽  
Scientists And Engineers ◽  
The Subject ◽  
The Common

Years ago, a curator at the Smithsonian Institution said to me, “Scientists and engineers are nutty on the subject of priority.” That was before I realized just how far-reaching that nuttiness was or how misguided the very concept of priority is. As an example, try searching out the inventor of the telephone. Instead of Alexander Graham Bell, you may get the name of a German, Johann Philipp Reis. The common wisdom is that Reis invented a primitive telephone that was only marginally functional, while Bell’s phone really worked. Reis was a twenty-six-year-old science teacher when he began work on the telephone in 1860. His essential idea came from a paper by a French investigator named Bourseul. In 1854 Bourseul had explained how to transmit speech electrically. He wrote: . . . Speak against one diaphragm and let each vibration “make or break” the electric contact. The electric pulsations thereby produced will set the other diaphragm working, and [it then reproduces] the transmitted sound. . . . Only one part of Bourseul’s idea was shaky. To send sound, the first diaphragm should not make and break contact; instead it should vary the flow of electricity to the second diaphragm continuously. While Reis had used Bourseul’s term “make or break,” his diaphragm actually drove a thin rod to varying depth in an electric coil. Instead of making and breaking the current, he really did vary it continuously. Bell faced the same problem when he began work on his telephone a decade later. First, he used a diaphragm-driven needle that entered a water-acid solution to create a continuously variable resistance and a smoothly varying electrical current. Bell got the idea from another American, inventor Elisha Gray. Of course, a liquid pool comes with two problems. One is evaporation; the other is immobility. Bell soon gave it up in favor of a system closer to Reis’ electromagnet. Still, it is clear that Gray’s variable-resistance pool had pointed the way for Bell. Next we must ask whether Bell was influenced by Reis’ invention. Reis died two years before Bell received his patent. (He was only forty, and he never got around to seeking a patent of his own.)

scholarly journals VIII. On the structure and development of the skull of the common frog ( Rana temporaria , L.)

1871 ◽  
Vol 161 ◽  
pp. 137-211 ◽  
Keyword(s):  
Rana Temporaria ◽  
The Other ◽  
Common Frog ◽  
Frog Rana Temporaria ◽  
The Subject ◽  
The Common ◽  
Working Out

Since the sending in of my last communication, that on the Skull of the Fowl, our knowledge of the morphology of the facial arches has been very greatly extended by Professor Huxley’s invaluable paper “On the Representatives of the Malleus and the Incus of the Mammalia in the other Vertebrata” (see Proc. Zool. Soc. May 1869, pp. 391-407). After comparing the components of the mandibular and hyoid arches in an extended series of vertebrate types, the author concludes his paper by saying (p. 406), “in the higher Amphibia changes of a most remarkable kind take place, of which I do not now propose to speak, as my friend Mr. Parker is engaged in working out that part of the subject.”

An appendix to Mr. Ware’s paper on vision

1832 ◽  
Vol 1 ◽  
pp. 454-455
Keyword(s):  
The Other ◽  
Watch Glass ◽  
Early Age ◽  
Learning To Read ◽  
The Subject ◽  
The Common ◽  
The Right ◽  
The Mind ◽  
Different Parts ◽  
Marble Surface

The author remarks, that Mr. Ware’s observations with regard to short-sightedness, being in general merely the consequence of habit acquired at an early age, is conformable with his own experience in general, and that he himself is a particular instance of natural long-sightedness gradually converted into confirmed short sight. He very well remembers first learning to read, at the common age of four or five years, and that at that time he could see the usual inscriptions across a wide church; but that at the age of nine or ten years he could no longer distinguish the same letters at the same distance, without the assistance of a watch-glass, which has the effect of one slightly concave. In a few years more the same glass was not sufficiently powerful; but yet his degree of short-sightedness was so inconsiderable, that he yielded to the dissuasion of his friends from using the common concave glasses till he was upwards of thirty years of age, when No. 2 was barely sufficient; and he very shortly had recourse to No. 3. In the course of a few years an increase of the defect rendered it necessary for him to employ glasses still deeper, and his sight soon required No. 5, where it has remained stationary to the present time. From the progress which Sir Charles Blagden has observed in his own short-sightedness, he is of opinion that it would have been accelerated by an earlier use of concave glasses, and might have been retarded, or perhaps prevented altogether, by attention to read and write with his book or paper as far distant as might be from his eyes. In this communication he takes the same opportunity of adding an experiment made many years since on the subject of vision, with a view to decide how far the similarity of the images received by the two eyes contribute to the impression made on the mind, that they arise from only one object. In the house where he then resided, was a marble surface ornamented with fluting, in alternate ridges and concavities. When his eyes were directed to these, at the distance of nine inches, they could be seen with perfect distinctness. When the optic axes were directed to a point at some distance behind, the ridges seen by one eye became confounded with the impression of concavities made upon the other, and occasioned the uneasy sensation usual in squinting. But when the eyes were directed to a point still more distant, the impression of one ridge on the right eye corresponded with that made with an adjacent ridge upon the left eye, so that the fluting then appeared distinct and single as at first, but the object appeared at double its real distance, and apparently magnified in that proportion. Though the different parts of the fluting were of the same form, their colours were not exactly alike, and this occasioned some degree of confusion when attention was paid to this degree of dissimilarity.

scholarly journals On a new register-pyrometer, for measuring the expansions of solids, and determining the higher degrees of temperature upon the common thermometric scale

1833 ◽  
Vol 2 ◽  
pp. 404-406
Keyword(s):  
Melting Point ◽  
High Temperatures ◽  
The Other ◽  
Royal Institution ◽  
Guyton De Morveau ◽  
Higher Temperature ◽  
The Subject ◽  
The Common ◽  
The One ◽  
Universal Application

In the year 1821, the author published in the Journal of the Royal Institution an account of a new pyrometer, and of some determinations of high temperatures, in connexion with the scale of the mercurial thermometer, obtained by its means. The use of the instrument then described was, however, limited; and the author was subsequently led to the invention of a pyrometer of a more universal application, both to scientific researches and to various purposes of art. Fie introduces the subject by an account of the late attempt of M. Guyton de Morveau, to employ the expansions of platina for the admeasurement of high temperatures, and for connecting the indications of Wedgwood’s pyrometer with the mercurial scale, and verifying its regularity. The experiments of that philosopher were by the contraction of porcelain, and by actual comparison with those of the platina pyrometer, at no higher temperature than the melting point of antimony; but they are sufficient to establish the existence of a great error in Wedgwood’s original estimation of his degrees up to that point. This he carries on by calculation, on the hypothesis of uniform progression of expansion, up to the melting point of iron; the construction of his instrument not admitting of its application to higher temperatures than a red heat, in which platina becomes soft and ductile. Mr. Daniell shows, by an examination of M. Guyton’s results, that he has failed in establishing the point he laboured to prove; namely, the regularity of the contraction of the clay pieces. The pyrometer of the author consists of two distinct parts; the one designated the register , the other the scale .

scholarly journals XVIII. On the organization of the fossil plants of the coal-measures.—Part I. Catamites

1871 ◽  
Vol 161 ◽  
pp. 477-510 ◽  
Keyword(s):  
De Novo ◽  
The Other ◽  
Fossil Flora ◽  
Fossil Plants ◽  
True Nature ◽  
Inverted Position ◽  
The Subject ◽  
The Common ◽  
The One ◽  
Coal Measures

A few preliminary words may he necessary to prevent misunderstanding respecting the claims and objects of the following memoir. When I entered upon the investigation of which it records the results, I found, in the writings of various British and foreign authors, a copious Calamitean literature; hut the widest discrepancies prevailed amongst them both as to facts and to inductions. I therefore determined to pursue the study of this group of fossils as if de novo, to record the facts which I observed, and to draw from those facts alone such inferences as seemed legitimate, both facts and inferences being in a certain sense, and so far as was possible under the circumstances, new and original. But it necessarily follows that some of these facts and inferences are not absolutely new, though many of them, I think, will he found to he additions to our knowledge of the subject; whilst others, though not new, have presented themselves to me in a light different to that in which they have been regarded by my able predecessors in the study. Such being the object of the memoir, I have not deemed it desirable to include in it a record of all the observations made by preceding writers. As a rule I have only referred to them when the discussion of some moot point rendered such a reference necessary. The fundamental aim of the memoir is to demonstrate the unity of type existing amongst the British Calamites. Brongniart, Dawson, and other writers believe that there exist amongst these plants two types of structure, the one Cryptogamic and Equisetaceous, the other Exogenous and Gymnospermous; on the other hand, Schimper and Carruthers regard the whole as Equiseceous, affording an example of the diversity of opinion on fundamental points to which I have already referred. Of course, before arriving at their conclusions, Brongniart, and those who adopt his views, had fully apprehended the exogenous structure of the woody zone of the Calamite, which is further illustrated in this memoir. The separation of each internode into vertical radiating plates of vascular and cellular tissues, arranged alternately, was familiar to Brongniart, Unger, and other early observers. Cotta regarded the cellular tracts (my primary medullary rays) as medullary rays ; but this interpretation was rejected by Unger, and the same divergence of view on this point has recurred amongst subsequent writers. Unger also noticed what I have designated secondary medullary rays, but at a much more recent date Mr. Carruthers disputed their existence. In their 'Fossil Flora of Great Britain,' Lindley and Hutton gave very correct illustrations of the position of the roots of Calamites relatively to the stem ; and yet for years afterwards some of their figures reappeared in geological text-books in an inverted position, the roots doing duty as leaves ; so far was even this elementary point from being settled. The true nature of the common sandstone form of Calamites, viz. that they are inorganic casts of the interior of the woody cylinder from which the pith has been removed, has been alike recognized by Germar, Corda, and Dawes; but they referred the disappearance of the cellular tissues of the pith to inorganic decay which took place subsequently to the death of the plant. It appears to me that the condition in which we find these cellular tissues affords no countenance to this conclusion. They are as perfectly preserved, when present, as any of the other tissues of the plant. Their inner surface, nearest the fistular cavity, presents no appearance of death and decay, but of rupture and absorption, which I conclude has occurred during life,—a different hypothesis from that adopted by my predecessors, and for which my reasons will be assigned in the memoir. The labours of Mr. Binney are referred to in the text. He figured the longitudinal internodal canals, but was disposed to believe that they had merely formed passages for vessels. He gave, however, excellent figures of the woody wedges, the primary medullary rays, and the cellular medulla, with its nodal septa or diaphragms .

scholarly journals On the expediency of assigning specific names to such functions of simple elements as represent definite physical properties; with the suggestion of a new term in mechanics; illustrated by an investigation of the machine moved by recoil, and also by some observations on the steam engine

1833 ◽  
Vol 2 ◽  
pp. 299-300
Keyword(s):  
Physical Properties ◽  
Effective Action ◽  
The Other ◽  
Steam Engine ◽  
Similar Function ◽  
Centre Of Gravity ◽  
Elastic Bodies ◽  
General Law ◽  
The Subject ◽  
The Common

The author commences this paper by stating the necessity of distinguishing by separate appellations all such functions as measure the intensity of physical properties, which he considers rendered obvious by a reference to the controversy respecting motion. The subject of this controversy, he observes, was the measure of motion itself, it being contended on one hand that the motion of a body is always proportional to its weight multiplied by its velocity; this opinion being supported by reference to the properties of the common centre of gravity of systems, &c.; while on the other hand the affections of elastic bodies in collision, and the general law of the conservation of living or active forces, were adduced in support of the latter measure. No sooner, however, were the terms “momentum” and “impetus” introduced into the science of mechanics, than the opinions of the contending parties were reconciled by the removal of every ground of dispute. In the Bakerian lecture on the force of percussion, read to this Society in 1806, he observes, it is remarked, that neither impetus nor momentum are usually correct measures of the effective action of machines. The criterion of this is the force exerted, multiplied by the space through which it acts, and this measure numerically expressed has been denominated duty by Mr. Watt; and the raising of one pound one foot high has been by him made the dynamic unit; according to which estimate, the duty performed by one bushel of coals, of 84 pounds, has been found to vary from 30 to 50 millions of such units, according to the nature of the engine, and the mode of combustion. To the measure or function represented by the force applied, multiplied by the space through which it acts, the author, however, proposes to give the name efficiency, retaining the word duty for a similar function, indicative of the work performed; and by a comparison of these two functions, viz. the efficiency expended on, and the duty performed by, any machine, an exact measure of its intrinsic work will be obtained.

scholarly journals The difference of jurists in the development of the Quran Alkarim

2018 ◽  
Vol 227 (2) ◽  
pp. 135-153
Author(s):  
Dr. Naseer kareem Kazem Al Saadi
Keyword(s):  
The Other ◽  
Common People ◽  
The Common ◽  
The Difference

The study of the reasons for the difference of jurists in the development is an attempt to alleviate the tension caused by the difference between them, as well as being the presentation of the culture of opinion and opinion of the other, not every difference between scientists leads to the boycott and quarrel among the common people, is a sincere invitation to show that we disagree with The dispute, we want to clarify that there are natural reasons are called for the difference, such as issues follow the character of the jurist, through the nature of the language that the Koran came down, which led to differences of scholars in the extraction of the Koran

Mutuality

1939 ◽  
Vol 23 (256) ◽  
pp. 342-348
Author(s):  
N. M. Gibbins
Keyword(s):  
Subject Matter ◽  
The Other ◽  
Perpendicular Bisector ◽  
The Subject ◽  
The Common

1. This lecture grew out of an attempt to trace the consequences of putting together two examination questions. The subject-matter of both is the reflections X, Y, Z of a point P in the sides of a triangle ABC- In the first question we have to show that the perpendiculars from A on YZ, from B on ZX, from C on XY meet in P′, the centre of the circle XYZ, and that the relation between P and P′ is mutual. Since AY = AP =AZ, the perpendicular from A to YZ bisects it. Hence this perpendicular passes through the centre of the circle XYZ, as do similarly the other two perpendiculars. Let X′, Y′, Z′ be the reflections of P′ in the sides of ABC. Since BC is the common perpendicular bisector of PX and P′X′, PX′ =P′X) and similarly PY′ = P′Y, PZ′ =P′Z. Hence P is the centre of the circle X′Y′Z′, and the two radii are equal.

The Standard of Living in Pakistan --- Better or Worse?

2004 ◽  
Vol 9 (2) ◽  
pp. 135-140
Author(s):  
Salman Ahmad
Keyword(s):  
Total Population ◽  
The Other ◽  
Standard Of Living ◽  
Economic Power ◽  
Common People ◽  
Standards Of Living ◽  
The Common

In a democracy there is scarcely any public question of greater importance than the standard of living of the common people. It is essential to know the actual level of this standard of living, and whether it is improving or deteriorating. There can be two types of standards of living. One is the standard of living of the society as a whole, and the other is the standard of a group within the society. It is perfectly possible for the standard of the society as a whole to be improving, while that of one or more groups within the society is declining. Moreover, if the distribution of economic power in the society is very unequal, it may happen that the group, the standard of which is declining may constitute a very large proportion, even a majority, of the total population.

Sign in / Sign up

Export Citation Format

Share Document