Immediate and delayed effects of word frequency and word length on eye movements in reading: A reversed delayed effect of word length.

Eye movements during regular reading, thorough reading, skimming, and spell checking of single pages of text were measured, to investigate how high-level reading tasks elicited by instructions affect reading behavior. Word frequency and word length effects were found. All results were compared to regular reading. Thorough reading involved longer total reading times and more rereading, and resulted in higher comprehension scores. Skimming involved longer saccades, shorter average fixation durations, more word skipping, shorter total reading times evenly distributed across the page, and resulted in lower comprehension scores. Spell checking involved shorter saccades, longer average fixation durations, less word skipping, longer total reading times evenly distributed across the entire page, and resulted in lower comprehension scores. Replicating local effects shows that paragraphs maintain sufficient experimental rigor, while also enabling reading analyses from a global perspective. Compared to regular reading, thorough reading was more elaborate and less uniform, skimming was faster and more uniform, and spell checking was slower and more uniform.

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Morphological structure influences the initial landing position in words during reading Finnish

Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology ◽

10.1080/17470218.2016.1267233 ◽

2018 ◽

Vol 71 (1) ◽

pp. 122-130 ◽

Cited By ~ 11

Author(s):

Jukka Hyönä ◽

Ming Yan ◽

Seppo Vainio

Keyword(s):

Eye Movements ◽

Word Frequency ◽

Word Length ◽

Morphological Structure ◽

Landing Position ◽

Low Level ◽

Initial Fixation ◽

Launch Site ◽

Fixation Locations ◽

Saccade Programming

The preferred viewing location in words [Rayner, K. (1979). Eye guidance in reading: Fixation locations within words. Perception, 8, 21–30] during reading is near the word centre. Parafoveal word length information is utilized to guide the eyes toward it. A recent study by Yan and colleagues [Yan, M., Zhou, W., Shu, H., Yusupu, R., Miao, D., Krügel, A., & Kliegl, R. (2014). Eye movements guided by morphological structure: Evidence from the Uighur language. Cognition, 132, 181–215] demonstrated that the word’s morphological structure may also be used in saccadic targeting. The study was conducted in a morphologically rich language, Uighur. The present study aimed at replicating their main findings in another morphologically rich language, Finnish. Similarly to Yan et al., it was found that the initial fixation landed closer to the word beginning for morphologically complex than for monomorphemic words. Word frequency, saccade launch site, and word length were also found to influence the initial landing position. It is concluded that in addition to low-level factors (word length and saccade launch site), also higher level factors related to the word’s morphological structure and frequency may be utilized in saccade programming during reading.

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Rapid and delayed effects of epidermal growth factor on gluconeogenesis

Biochemical Journal ◽

10.1042/bj2940865 ◽

1993 ◽

Vol 294 (3) ◽

pp. 865-872 ◽

Cited By ~ 12

Author(s):

C Soler ◽

M Soley

Keyword(s):

Growth Factor ◽

Epidermal Growth Factor ◽

Redox State ◽

Metabolic Flux ◽

Isolated Hepatocytes ◽

Delayed Effect ◽

Delayed Effects ◽

Mitochondrial Redox State ◽

Glucose Synthesis ◽

Epidermal Growth

Most reports on the effects of epidermal growth factor (EGF) on gluconeogenesis have indicated that such effects depend on the substrate used and are only observable after a lag time of 30-40 min. Recently, an immediate and transient effect of EGF on glucose synthesis was described in a perfused liver system. Here we extend the study of the effect of EGF on gluconeogenesis to isolated hepatocytes from fasted rats. The delayed effect of EGF on gluconeogenesis was studied by adding the substrate 40 min after the peptide. Under these conditions EGF increased glucose synthesis from pyruvate, decreased it when the substrate was lactate or glycerol and did not modify gluconeogensis from fructose or dihydroxyacetone. EGF did not affect the metabolic flux through glycolysis, determined as the production of lactate+pyruvate from 30 mM glucose. Furthermore, EGF did not modify the metabolic flux through pyruvate kinase, determined as the production of lactate+pyruvate from 1 mM dihydroxyacetone. The differing effects of EGF on gluconeogenesis depending on the substrate used can be explained by the effects of EGF on the cytosolic redox state (measured as the lactate/pyruvate ratio). About 20 min after the addition of EGF, the mitochondrial redox state (measured as the 3-hydroxybutyrate/acetoacetate ratio) decreased. This effect of EGF was blocked by ammonium, which also abolished the effect of the peptide on gluconeogenesis. Thus the effect of EGF at the mitochondrial level appears to be necessary for its effects on gluconeogenesis. Taken together, our results indicate that the delayed effects of EGF on gluconeogenesis are secondary to the effects of the peptide at both the mitochondrial and cytosolic levels. In addition to these delayed effects, we observed that EGF rapidly and transiently stimulated glucose synthesis from lactate, decreased the cytosolic redox state and increased oxygen consumption. All of these rapid effects required the presence of extracellular calcium and disappeared in the presence of rotenone, suggesting that this rapid effect of EGF on gluconeogenesis is secondary to the stimulation of mitochondrial respiration.

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Eye movements and word skipping during reading: Effects of word length and predictability

PsycEXTRA Dataset ◽

10.1037/e520592012-012 ◽

2010 ◽

Author(s):

Denis Drieghe ◽

Timothy J. Slattery ◽

Simon P. Liversedge ◽

Keith Rayner

Keyword(s):

Eye Movements ◽

Word Length ◽

Word Skipping

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Picture-naming agreement in monolingulas and biliguals

Applied Psycholinguistics ◽

10.1017/s0142716400005312 ◽

1994 ◽

Vol 15 (2) ◽

pp. 177-193 ◽

Cited By ~ 7

Author(s):

Judith P. Goggin ◽

Patricia Estrada ◽

Ronald P. Villarreal

Keyword(s):

Word Frequency ◽

Picture Naming ◽

Word Length ◽

Age Of Acquisition ◽

Language Skill ◽

Frequency Word ◽

Line Drawings ◽

Name Agreement ◽

The Relationship

ABSTRACTName agreement in Spanish and English in response to 264 pictures was assessed in monolinguals and in bilinguals, who varied in rated skill in the two languages. Most of the pictures were adapted from a standardized set of line drawings of common objects (Snodgrass & Vanderwart, 1980). Name agreement decreased as language skill decreased, and agreement was lower when labels were given in Spanish rather than in English. The relationship between name agreement and word frequency, word length, and (in the case of English) age of acquisition was assessed; both word frequency and word length were found to be related to agreement. Modal responses given by monolingual subjects were nearly identical in the two languages, and the types of non-modal responses were affected by both naming language and language skill.

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ZIPF'S LAW AND RANDOM TEXTS

Advances in Complex Systems ◽

10.1142/s0219525902000468 ◽

2002 ◽

Vol 05 (01) ◽

pp. 1-6 ◽

Cited By ~ 38

Author(s):

RAMON FERRER i CANCHO ◽

RICARD V. SOLÉ

Keyword(s):

Word Frequency ◽

Power Law ◽

Word Length ◽

A Priori ◽

Zipf’S Law ◽

Strict Sense ◽

A Priori Information ◽

Zipf's Law ◽

Priori Information ◽

Random Text

Random-text models have been proposed as an explanation for the power law relationship between word frequency and rank, the so-called Zipf's law. They are generally regarded as null hypotheses rather than models in the strict sense. In this context, recent theories of language emergence and evolution assume this law as a priori information with no need of explanation. Here, random texts and real texts are compared through (a) the so-called lexical spectrum and (b) the distribution of words having the same length. It is shown that real texts fill the lexical spectrum much more efficiently and regardless of the word length, suggesting that the meaningfulness of Zipf's law is high.

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The Delayed Effect of Parental Control on the Adaptation of Men and Women in Adulthood

Journal of Intellectual Disability - Diagnosis and Treatment ◽

10.6000/2292-2598.2021.09.03.5 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 9 (3) ◽

pp. 294-303

Author(s):

Borys A. Yakymchuk ◽

◽

Iryna P. Yakymchuk ◽

Iryna O. Vakhotska ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Parental Control ◽

The Body ◽

Delayed Effect ◽

Negative Effects ◽

Men And Women ◽

Delayed Effects ◽

Personal Boundaries ◽

Women's Lives ◽

Paternal Control ◽

Maternal Autonomy

Parental control is an integral part of parent-child relations and a traditional tool of socialization. However, numerous negative effects of parental intervention in the child’s inner world are known. This study clarifies the delayed effects of parental control and a detached parenting style. 270 men and women are aged 35-44 years filled in the questionnaires of hardiness, the sovereignty of the psychological space, and perceived behavior by the father and mother. The results confirmed the prevalence of parental control, especially its manifestations on the part of mothers about daughters. In adult women's lives, mothers' directiveness correlates with hostility and violation of personal boundaries as regards the body, personal territory, things, habits, social connections, and values; men noted maternal interference in the formation of sovereign habits and values. At the same time, parental non-involvement is widespread; the autonomy of fathers about children is significantly greater than mothers. Correlation analysis confirmed the assumption that parental directivity/autonomy determines the hardiness and sense of integrity of personal boundaries in adulthood. The effect of parental control in adulthood depends on the gender of the children and the parents. Maternal control is a strong negative factor for daughters, while maternal autonomy positively correlates with indicators of hardiness. Paternal control was a neutral factor for daughters. For sons, the directivity of father and mother contributes to the formation of resilience. The conclusion was made about the need for differentiation of positive and negative effects of parental control, taking into account gender positions.

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