Abstract
We investigate observable signatures of a first-order quantum chromodynamics (QCD) phase transition in the context of core-collapse supernovae. To this end, we conduct axially symmetric numerical relativity simulations with multi-energy neutrino transport, using a hadron–quark hybrid equation of state (EOS). We consider four nonrotating progenitor models, whose masses range from 9.6 to 70 M
⊙. We find that the two less-massive progenitor stars (9.6 and 11.2 M
⊙) show a successful explosion, which is driven by the neutrino heating. They do not undergo the QCD phase transition and leave behind a neutron star. As for the more massive progenitor stars (50 and 70 M
⊙), the proto-neutron star (PNS) core enters the phase transition region and experiences the second collapse. Because of a sudden stiffening of the EOS entering to the pure quark matter regime, a strong shock wave is formed and blows off the PNS envelope in the 50 M
⊙ model. Consequently the remnant becomes a quark core surrounded by hadronic matter, leading to the formation of the hybrid star. However, for the 70 M
⊙ model, the shock wave cannot overcome the continuous mass accretion and it readily becomes a black hole. We find that the neutrino and gravitational wave (GW) signals from supernova explosions driven by the hadron–quark phase transition are detectable for the present generation of neutrino and GW detectors. Furthermore, the analysis of the GW detector response reveals unique kHz signatures, which will allow us to distinguish this class of supernova explosions from failed and neutrino-driven explosions.
Core-collapse Supernova Simulations and the Formation of Neutron Stars, Hybrid Stars, and Black Holes
