AbstractWe examined the effects of chitosan oligosaccharides (COSs) with different molecular weights (COS-A, 10 kDa < MW < 20 kDa; COS-C, 1 kDa < MW < 3 kDa) on the lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced production of prostaglandin E2 and nitric oxide and on the expression of cyclooxygenase-2 and inducible nitric oxide synthase in RAW264.7 macrophages. COS-A (0.4%) and COS-C (0.2%) significantly inhibited PGE2 production in LPS-stimulated macrophages without cytotoxicity. The effect of COS-A and COS-C on COX-2 expression in activated macrophages was also investigated by immunoblotting. The inhibition of PGE2 by COS-A and COS-C can be attributed to the blocking of COX-2 protein expression. COS-A (0.4%) and COS-C (0.2%) also markedly inhibited the LPS-induced NO production of RAW 264.7 cells by 50.2% and 44.1%, respectively. The inhibition of NO by COSs was consistent with decreases in inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) protein expression. To test the inhibitory effects of COS-A and COS-C on other cytokines, we also performed ELISA assays for IL-1β in LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophage cells, but only a dose-dependent decrease in the IL-1β production exerted by COS-A was observed. In order to test for irritation and the potential sensitization of COS-A and COS-C for use as cosmetic materials, human skin primary irritation tests were performed on 32 volunteers; no adverse reactions of COSs usage were observed. Based on these results, we suggest that COS-A and COS-C be considered possible anti-inflammatory candidates for topical application.
Inducible Nitric-oxide Synthase and Nitric Oxide Donor Decrease Insulin Receptor Substrate-2 Protein Expression by Promoting Proteasome-dependent Degradation in Pancreatic β-Cells
