Electrical noise and the measurement of absolute temperature, Boltzmann's constant and Avogadro's number

1988 ◽  
Vol 23 (2) ◽  
pp. 112-116 ◽  
Author(s):  
T J Ericson
Keyword(s):  
Absolute Temperature ◽  
Electrical Noise ◽  
Avogadro’S Number

scholarly journals The viscosity of strong electrolytes measured by a differential method

1934 ◽  
Vol 145 (855) ◽  
pp. 475-488 ◽  
Keyword(s):  
Dielectric Constant ◽  
Empirical Equation ◽  
Relative Viscosity ◽  
Absolute Temperature ◽  
Differential Method ◽  
Theoretical Equation ◽  
Electronic Charge ◽  
Accurate Data ◽  
Avogadro’S Number ◽  
Strong Electrolytes

Until quite recently no satisfactory equation had been obtained for the representation of the viscosity of dilute solutions of strong electrolytes. An empirical equation was recently proposed by Jones and Dole to fit the only accurate data then available. Their equation may be represented thus : η = 1 + A √ c + B c , η = relative viscosity of the solution c = concentration in moles per litre A and B are constants. Jones and Dole realized that the coefficient A is due to interionic forces and in a series of later publications Falkenhagen, Dole and Vernon have deduced a theoretical equation giving values of A in terms of well-known physical constants. Their complete equation may be written η = 1 + ε √N v 1 z 1 /30η 0 √1000D k T ( z 1 + z 2 ) 4 π × [¼ μ 1 z 2 + μ 2 z 1 / μ 1 μ 2 - z 1 z 2 (μ 1 - μ 2 ) 2 /μ 1 μ 2 (√μ 1 z 1 + μ 2 z 2 + √(μ 1 + μ 2 ) ( z 1 + z 2 ) ) 2 ]√ c , where N = Avogadro's number v 1 , v 2 = numbers of ions z 1 , z 2 = valencies of ions μ 1 , μ 2 = absolute mobilities of ions D = dielectric constant of solvent k = Boltzmann's constant ε = electronic charge η 0 = viscosity of solvent T = absolute temperature.

scholarly journals The estimation of electric moment in solution by the temperature coefficient method. Part I.—Experimental method and the electric moments of some benzyl compounds

1933 ◽  
Vol 142 (846) ◽  
pp. 173-197 ◽  
Keyword(s):  
Single Molecule ◽  
Polar Solvent ◽  
Fundamental Equation ◽  
Absolute Temperature ◽  
Electric Moment ◽  
Avogadro’S Number ◽  
Boltzmann Gas ◽  
Different Temperatures ◽  
The Moment ◽  
Coefficient Method

The theory of the estimation of the electric moment of molecules dissolved in a non-polar solvent is now well known. The fundamental equation is P 2∞ = 4 π /3 N (α 0 + μ 2 /3 k T) (1) in which the symbols have the following significance: P 2∞ the total polarizability of the solute per grain molecule at infinite dilution, N Avogadro’s number, α 0 the moment induced in a single molecule by unit electric field, k the Boltzmann gas constant, T the absolute temperature, and μ the permanent electric moment of the molecule. This equation is of the form P 2∞ = A + B/T, (2) where A = 4 π /3 Nα 0 and B = 4 π /9 . N μ 2 / k , from which it follows that if A and B are constant, i. e ., independent of temperature, then each may be evaluated from a series of measurements of P 2∞ at different temperatures or alternatively B (and hence μ ) may be obtained from one value of P 2∞ at one temperature, provided that A can be obtained by some independent method.

scholarly journals Fluctuation Dissipation Theorem and Electrical Noise Revisited

2019 ◽  
Vol 18 (01) ◽  
pp. 1930001 ◽  
Author(s):  
Lino Reggiani ◽  
Eleonora Alfinito
Keyword(s):  
Electromagnetic Radiation ◽  
Linear Response ◽  
Casimir Effect ◽  
Zero Point ◽  
Absolute Temperature ◽  
Electrical Noise ◽  
Point Energy ◽  
Fluctuation Dissipation ◽  
Fluctuation Dissipation Theorem ◽  
Kinetic Coefficients

The fluctuation dissipation theorem (FDT) is the basis for a microscopic description of the interaction between electromagnetic radiation and matter. By assuming the electromagnetic radiation in thermal equilibrium and the interaction in the linear-response regime, the theorem interrelates the macroscopic spontaneous fluctuations of an observable with the kinetic coefficients that are responsible for energy dissipation in the linear response to an applied perturbation. In the quantum form provided by Callen and Welton in their pioneering paper of 1951 for the case of conductors [H. B. Callen and T. A. Welton, Irreversibility and generalized noise, Phys. Rev. 83 (1951) 34], electrical noise in terms of the spectral density of voltage fluctuations, [Formula: see text], detected at the terminals of a conductor was related to the real part of its impedance, [Formula: see text], by the simple relation [Formula: see text] where [Formula: see text] is the Boltzmann constant, [Formula: see text] is the absolute temperature, [Formula: see text] is the reduced Planck constant and [Formula: see text] is the angular frequency. The drawbacks of this relation concern with: (i) the appearance of a zero-point contribution which implies a divergence of the spectrum at increasing frequencies; (ii) the lack of detailing the appropriate equivalent-circuit of the impedance, (iii) the neglect of the Casimir effect associated with the quantum interaction between zero-point energy and boundaries of the considered physical system; (iv) the lack of identification of the microscopic noise sources beyond the temperature model. These drawbacks do not allow to validate the relation with experiments, apart from the limiting conditions when [Formula: see text]. By revisiting the FDT within a brief historical survey of its formulation, since the announcement of Stefan–Boltzmann law dated in the period 1879–1884, we shed new light on the existing drawbacks by providing further properties of the theorem with particular attention to problems related with the electrical noise of a two-terminals sample under equilibrium conditions. Accordingly, among others, we will discuss the duality and reciprocity properties of the theorem, the role played by different statistical ensembles, its applications to the ballistic transport-regime, to the case of vacuum and to the case of a photon gas.

scholarly journals Studies in brownian movement.— II. The determination of avogadro's number from observations on bacteria (cocci)

1923 ◽  
Vol 104 (728) ◽  
pp. 655-667 ◽  
Keyword(s):  
Absolute Temperature ◽  
Spherical Particles ◽  
Brownian Movement ◽  
Perfect Gas ◽  
Liquid Media ◽  
Avogadro’S Number ◽  
Fluid State ◽  
Usual Form ◽  
The Mean

1. The Brownian movement is now definitely accepted as a manifestation of the motion of molecules in the fluid state. Its mathematical theory, first given by Einstein, has been verified by Perrin and his co-workersf for liquid media, by Harvey Fletcher, Eyring and others for gases. The most usual form of the equation of Brownian movement is l 2͞ = RT/πN ηa t , in which R is the gas constant and N the number of molecules per gram-molecule of a perfect gas, T the absolute temperature and η the viscosity of the medium which suspends spherical particles exhibiting the movement, a the radius of such a particle and l 2͞ the mean square of its displacement in a time t , this displacement being wholly due to the Brownian movement.

scholarly journals The Stokes-Einstein law for diffusion in solution

1924 ◽  
Vol 106 (740) ◽  
pp. 724-749 ◽  
Keyword(s):  
Diffusion Constant ◽  
Frictional Resistance ◽  
Absolute Temperature ◽  
Mean Square ◽  
Avogadro’S Number ◽  
Molecular Movement ◽  
The Mean ◽  
Gas Molecules ◽  
And Diffusion ◽  
Mean Kinetic Energy

Einstein has shown that the relation between molecular movement and diffusion in a liquid may be expressed by the following equation, when the particles move independently of each other:— D=͞Δ 2 /2 t , (1) D being the diffusion constant and ͞Δ 2 the mean square of the deviation in a given direction in time t . Further, if it be assumed that the particles possess the same mean kinetic energy as gas molecules at the same temperature, the following equation holds ͞Δ = 2RT/N . t /C (2) where R is the gas constant, N Avogadro’s number, T the absolute temperature, and C a constant, which we might call the frictional resistance of the molecule. Hence, D = RT/N .1/C. (3) Under the foregoing assumptions equations (2) and (3) hold equally well for dissolved molecules and particles of greater dimensions.

Residual Gas Reactions in the Electron Microscope: I. Qualitative Observations on the Water Gas Reaction

1968 ◽  
Vol 26 ◽  
pp. 292-293
Author(s):  
Richard E. Hartman ◽  
Roberta S. Hartman ◽  
Peter L. Ramos
Keyword(s):  
Electron Beam ◽  
Electron Microscope ◽  
Gas Phase ◽  
Absolute Temperature ◽  
Residual Gas ◽  
Gas Reactions ◽  
Image Position ◽  
The Right ◽  
Water Gas ◽  
Thinning Rate

The action of water and the electron beam on organic specimens in the electron microscope results in the removal of oxidizable material (primarily hydrogen and carbon) by reactions similar to the water gas reaction .which has the form:The energy required to force the reaction to the right is supplied by the interaction of the electron beam with the specimen.The mass of water striking the specimen is given by:where u = gH2O/cm2 sec, PH2O = partial pressure of water in Torr, & T = absolute temperature of the gas phase. If it is assumed that mass is removed from the specimen by a reaction approximated by (1) and that the specimen is uniformly thinned by the reaction, then the thinning rate in A/ min iswhere x = thickness of the specimen in A, t = time in minutes, & E = efficiency (the fraction of the water striking the specimen which reacts with it).

A discussion on equations of phase equilibrium between two regular binary phases

1981 ◽  
Vol 46 (6) ◽  
pp. 1433-1438
Author(s):  
Jan Vřešťál
Keyword(s):  
Phase Equilibrium ◽  
Linear Function ◽  
Concentration Dependence ◽  
Absolute Temperature ◽  
Enthalpy Change ◽  
Independent Parameter ◽  
Free Enthalpy ◽  
Regular Solutions ◽  
Regular Model ◽  
Concentration Dependences

The conditions of the existence of extreme on the concentration dependences of absolute temperature (x are mole fractions) T = Tα(xkα) and T = Tβ(xkβ) denoting equilibrium between two binary regular solutions are generally developed under two assumptions: 1) Free enthalpy change of pure components k = i, j at transition from phase α to β is a linear function of temperature. 2) Concentration dependence of excess free enthalpy (identical with enthalpy) of solutions α and β, respectively, is described in regular model by one concentration and temperature independent parameter for each individual phase.

scholarly journals Radiometric modeling of mechanical draft cooling towers to assist in the extraction of their absolute temperature from remote thermal imagery

2009 ◽  
Author(s):  
Matthew Montanaro ◽  
Carl Salvaggio ◽  
Scott D. Brown ◽  
David W. Messinger ◽  
Alfred J. Garrett ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Absolute Temperature ◽  
Cooling Towers ◽  
Thermal Imagery
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