Scientific Journey through Germany and Denmark

2019 ◽  
pp. 221-250
Author(s):  
Stanley Finger
Keyword(s):  
Roman Empire ◽  
The Netherlands ◽  
Psychiatric Patients ◽  
Holy Roman Empire ◽  
Napoleonic Wars ◽  
Local Institutions ◽  
Men And Women ◽  
German States ◽  
Considerable Support

Berlin was the first stop on Gall’s scientific journey, which began in March 1805, during the Napoleonic Wars that led to the collapse of the Holy Roman Empire. He arrived there with Spurzheim, a wax modeler, and at last one servant, and gave a series of lectures and anatomical demonstrations, while also examining prisoners and psychiatric patients in local institutions. His lectures attracted large audiences that were mostly positive toward him, though he did battle with Professor of Anatomy Johann Gottlieb Walter, whose turf he invaded. After Berlin he headed to nearby Potsdam, where he had been invited to lecture by royalty. Leipzig, Dresden, and Halle followed, and then Weimar and Jena, again with considerable support but also some critics. Next was Göttingen, where he spent time with fellow skull collector and anthropologist Johann Friedrich Blumenbach, who was less than impressed. He continued on to Hamburg and Kiel, and into Denmark, where he lectured to a mixed audience of 200 men and women. Returning to the German states, he met with an appreciative King Gustav IV Adolf of Sweden, who, like many others, rewarded him for his stop. Bremen and Münster were next on his agenda, ending this largely successful part of his scientific journey and positioning him to cross over to the Netherlands.

Peace Problems of Today and Yesterday

1944 ◽  
Vol 38 (3) ◽  
pp. 512-521
Author(s):  
Quincy Wright
Keyword(s):  
Roman Empire ◽  
The Netherlands ◽  
International Order ◽  
Holy Roman Empire ◽  
Political Organization ◽  
Napoleonic Wars ◽  
Economic Relationships ◽  
Territorial State ◽  
Spiritual Authority ◽  
National Sentiment

The wars which are now drawing to a close can be compared to the Thirty Years War (1618–48), the War of the Spanish Succession, which really began in 1688 and lasted until 1713, and the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars (1789–1815). Each of these wars lasted thirty years or slightly less, and if we begin the present war in 1914, it already has become a fourth thirty-years war.All of these wars left problems which had aspects in common. In all, there was the problem of returning to the ways of peace, of settling boundaries and governments, of reconstruction, and of maintaining a stable international order. But in each successive war the area involved was larger, the number of participants in the peace was greater, their economic relationships were more pervasive, and a more intensive international political organization was attempted.At Westphalia in 1648, the effort was rather to establish the independence of states than to organize their interdependence. The ancient structure of the Holy Roman Empire and the universal spiritual authority of the Papacy were crumbling. The national independence of Switzerland and of the Netherlands and the virtual independence of the states of Germany were recognized. The notion of the sovereign territorial state, so different from the conception of a feudal hierarchy which had dominated medieval thinking, took root in men's minds and was promoted by the administration of efficient governments beginning to realize the possibilities of building power upon national sentiment.

New Light on Secular Polyphony at the Court of Holland in the Early Fifteenth Century: The Amsterdam Fragments

1992 ◽  
Vol 117 (2) ◽  
pp. 181-207 ◽  
Author(s):  
Rob C. Wegman
Keyword(s):  
Roman Empire ◽  
Sixteenth Century ◽  
The Netherlands ◽  
Fifteenth Century ◽  
Holy Roman Empire ◽  
Regional Government ◽  
Common Language ◽  
Middle Dutch ◽  
First Time

Around 1400, the northern Netherlands were little more than a loose collection of quarrelling principalities, unified to some degree by their common language, Middle Dutch. Formally this unruly area was part of the Holy Roman Empire, but the German emperor's political weakness laid it wide open to the territorial ambitions of the Burgundian dukes. Under their rule, the Netherlands saw centralized regional government for the first time in their history. But it was not until the sixteenth century, when their Spanish Habsburg successors were increasingly regarded as foreign oppressors, that anything like a unified sovereign Dutch state came within sight.

The German Question in the Foreign Policy of the Austrian Empire in 1850—1866

Istoriya ◽  
2021 ◽  
Vol 12 (6 (104)) ◽  
pp. 0
Author(s):  
Elena Kotova
Keyword(s):  
Foreign Policy ◽  
Roman Empire ◽  
19Th Century ◽  
Political Instability ◽  
Holy Roman Empire ◽  
Personal Factor ◽  
German States ◽  
German Question ◽  
The 19Th Century ◽  
The Relationship

For centuries, the House of Austria (the Habsburgs) maintained its leadership in the Holy Roman Empire, and later in the German Union. But in the middle of the 19th century the situation changed, Austria lost its position in Germany, lost to Prussia in the struggle for hegemony. The article examines what factors influenced such an outcome of the German question, what policy Austria pursued in the 50—60s of the 19th century, what tasks it set for itself. The paper traces the relationship between the domestic and foreign policy of Austria. Economic weakness and political instability prevented the monarchy from pursuing a successful foreign policy. The multinational empire could not resist the challenge of nationalism and prevent the unification of Italy and Germany. Difficult relations with France and Russia, inconsistent policy towards the Middle German states largely determined this outcome. The personal factor was also important. None of the Austrian statesmen could resist such an outstanding politician as Bismarck.

1806 and Its Aftermath: Revisiting the Period of the Napoleonic Wars in German Central European Historiography

2006 ◽  
Vol 39 (4) ◽  
pp. 547-579 ◽  
Author(s):  
Katherine Aaslestad ◽  
Karen Hagemann
Keyword(s):  
Roman Empire ◽  
Historical Memory ◽  
Economic Transformation ◽  
Holy Roman Empire ◽  
German History ◽  
Napoleonic Wars ◽  
Early Nineteenth Century ◽  
The Holocaust ◽  
Twentieth Century Europe ◽  
Maritime Museum

If the French faced the 200th anniversary of the Napoleonic Empire with some trepidation about how to commemorate the infamous Corsican, the British celebrated the Battle of Trafalgar as an enduring national victory. A grand exhibit in the National Maritime Museum in London, “Nelson and Napoleon,” observed this event in 2005. In contemporary Germany, however, the commemoration of 1806 has occurred mainly among small circles of specialists and remained largely absent from popular historical consciousness. In recent times, besides the exhibition on the Holy Roman Empire in the German Historical Museum in Berlin, only small local exhibits and substantial articles in magazines like Die Zeit and Der Spiegel recall 1806. Past momentous occasions such as 1848, 1914–1919, 1933–1945, and 1949 clearly overshadow in contemporary historical memory the tumultuous decades that surrounded the Napoleonic Wars. This tendency to overlook and underestimate the significance of the early nineteenth century also remains evident among scholars who work on later periods of German history. In the shadow of World Wars and the Holocaust, the period of the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars between 1792 and 1815 seems distant to the contemporary audience. But why do historians also tend to disregard the importance of this era of warfare and domestic, social, and economic transformation—a period so rich in complexity—and its enduring consequences for nineteenth- and twentieth-century Europe?

Reformed Irenicism and the Leipzig Colloquy of 1631

1976 ◽  
Vol 9 (1) ◽  
pp. 3-26 ◽  
Author(s):  
Bodo Nischan
Keyword(s):  
Roman Empire ◽  
Sixteenth Century ◽  
The Netherlands ◽  
Holy Roman Empire ◽  
German Nation ◽  
Religious Problems ◽  
Religious War

Europe in the second half of the sixteenth century was a continent divided along confessional lines. Nowhere was this more apparent than in the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation. While other countries, in particular France and the Netherlands, drifted toward religious war, the Empire seemed to have settled its religious problems with the Treaty of Augsburg in 1555. The treaty, which Emperor Ferdinand I had negotiated with the German princes, permitted Catholic rulers to impose Catholicism upon all their subjects and Lutheran princes to impose Lutheranism. This was a religiopolitical compromise that worked temporarily but became increasingly difficult to preserve as Germany's confessional picture continued to change in the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries.

‘The odious name of a monopolist’

2020 ◽  
pp. 177-201
Author(s):  
Thomas Leng
Keyword(s):  
Roman Empire ◽  
The Netherlands ◽  
Free Trade ◽  
Holy Roman Empire ◽  
House Of Commons

This chapter addresses contests within the Company of Merchant Adventurers following its expulsion from the Holy Roman Empire, in 1598, as a result of a mandate issued by the emperor declaring the Company to be a monopoly. These are shown to be a consequence of the divisions that had emerged in the Company following its departure from Antwerp in the 1560s, and its subsequent occupation of two different territories—the Netherlands and the Holy Roman Empire. Although the Company’s governors initially attempted to confine trade to the Netherlands following the mandate, many members insisted on continuing to trade to the Empire. In the ensuing contest, debates about the purposes of Company government were raised by members and non-members, and were advertised to an influential political audience. This debate is shown to have contributed to the bill for free trade that passed the House of Commons in the parliament of 1604.

scholarly journals Benefits of Empire? Capital Market Integration North and South of the Alps, 1350–1800

2018 ◽  
Vol 78 (3) ◽  
pp. 637-672 ◽  
Author(s):  
David Chilosi ◽  
Max-Stephan Schulze ◽  
Oliver Volckart
Keyword(s):  
Roman Empire ◽  
Sixteenth Century ◽  
The Netherlands ◽  
Capital Market ◽  
Market Integration ◽  
Holy Roman Empire ◽  
Capital Market Integration ◽  
The Alps ◽  
North And South

This article addresses two questions. First, when and to what extent did capital markets integrate north and south of the Alps? Second, how mobile was capital? Analysing a unique new dataset on pre-modern urban annuities, we find that northern markets were consistently better integrated than Italian markets. Long-term integration was driven by initially peripheral places in the Netherlands and Upper Germany integrating with the rest of the Holy Roman Empire where the distance and volume of inter-urban investments grew primarily in the sixteenth century. The institutions of the Empire contributed to stronger market integration north of the Alps.

The Literary Conventions of Erasmus' Education of a Christian Prince: Advice and Aphorism

1982 ◽  
Vol 35 (2) ◽  
pp. 151-163 ◽  
Author(s):  
Richard F. Hardin
Keyword(s):  
Roman Empire ◽  
Sixteenth Century ◽  
The Netherlands ◽  
Holy Roman Empire ◽  
Henry Viii ◽  
Civic Humanism ◽  
Charles V ◽  
Francis I ◽  
Vast Area

The advent of the great autocrats of the sixteenth century—Francis I, Charles V, and Henry VIII—was a source of concern and perplexity to many sensitive observers of that age, a reaction that was more than the mere aversion to magnificence that Hans Baron saw motivating an earlier civic humanism. The sixteenth century brought with it a series of disastrous wars and an expansion of monarchies the likes of which the preceding century had not known. The Holy Roman Empire came to include, at least nominally, a vast area of Europe from Austria to the Netherlands; the ambitious Francis I had designs on Italy and the Netherlands; Henry VIII was pursuing the reconquest of France.

Sign in / Sign up

Export Citation Format

Share Document